Defining the Leadership Challenge Today

he leaders of today are faced with many challenges, which are often rooted in the rapidly changing environment. Leaders have to focus their energy on at least the following three key areas at the same time:

Action Centered Leadership

These three areas are interrelated, and an effective leader should maintain balance between them and share power and responsibility with subordinates. The effectiveness of a leader depends also on his ability to influence and be influenced by the group and its members in the implementation of common tasks. This means in relation to the above model:

• Ensuring the required task is achieved: This appears on the top of the three-circle model because this is the ultimate goal of an organization without which it does not have any function.

• Building and reinforcing the team: Effective communications are vital in both achieving tasks and motivating individuals. It relates to the way in which decisions are made as well as the flow of information around the group.

• Meeting the individual needs: of each member of the group and developing the task related skills of each individual.

The above model can be likened to an iceberg. Leaders often focus on the management of tasks and leave the team and individual development to itself. In this case the only aspect of the job visible above the surface is the task management. It is possible to shift the iceberg by dragging it along at the surface but it takes a great deal of energy. The leader who attends to all three areas will be pulling from the center of gravity beneath the surface. This is far more efficient and the iceberg appears to move by itself.

A key word in the model is balance. It is unusual for a leader to attend to all three areas at once. However, as long as each area is visited at the appropriate times balance is maintained. If one area grows out of proportion to the others the iceberg will either sink or capsize as the neglected needs begin to dominate, hindering performance.

The model shows the three circles overlapping. This is to indicate that each area is inter-related. To be effective a team needs a certain spirit and targets at which to aim in order to get the task achieved. At the same time each member has needs and ambitions they want to meet, skills to contribute to the task and a desire to be an active member of the team.

Whatever the level of management the effective leader will satisfy

• the task: by clear, brief and achievable targets; good planning and organization; constant monitoring and control as appropriate (MBWA – ‘Management by Wandering About,’ i.e., walking around and inquiring with staff/getting their feedback); and realistic and specific evaluation and feedback.

• the team: by understanding the group’s development needs; obtaining a common understanding of the task and the individual roles in its achievement; involving the group in the decision-making process; monitoring group cohesion; and maintaining effective communications.

• the individuals: by recognizing and using specific skills; training and supporting development needs; and motivating (by meeting personal needs for achievements, responsibility and recognition).

Styles of Leadership and Influence

Autocratic Styles

1. TELL – Exerting pressure, using rewards or punishment to get action. Being directive.
2. SELL – Putting forward a reasoned case (selling), or making a personal appeal (do me a favor). Persuading.
3. Coach – Training, showing or telling someone "how to…".
4. CONSULT – Asking for suggestions and information before deciding on action.
5. BARGAIN – Agreeing on ways you can help each other. Giving and taking.
6. JOINT Problem-Solve – Working things out together as a team. Discussing problems and solutions.
7. FACILITATE – Listening to the ideas of others and/or help a person to solve the problem himself.
8. DELEGATE – Assigning a task including the quality, quantity, and time scale. Allowing scope in how to do the task.
9. AVOIDANCE – Refusing to get involved, leaving the person on his/her own.

Participating Styles

Personal Characteristics in Developing Power and Influence

hat makes a leader? The question raises speculation as to whether there is a single trait or personality characteristic that distinguishes a leader from a non-leader. The answer is that while there is no such single trait, there are some universal traits that leaders have to some greater degree than non-leaders. What is certainly true is that one cannot ignore the situation and the followers when trying to clarify what makes a leader or to explain leadership.

Power and influence can be developed by a series of strategies and tactics. The ability to choose the most appropriate influencing style and develop a repertoire of influencing skills is of great importance for leaders who want to increase their sphere of influence. However, research has also shown that a number of personal characteristics are associated with those who acquire power within organizations. The main personal characteristics in developing power and influence include the following:

Personal Energy

In his book On Leadership (The Free Press, 1989) John W. Gardner wrote: "If one asks people to list the attributes of leaders, they are not likely to mention a high energy level or physical durability. Yet these attributes are essential."

Energy and resilience are some of the important elements in building power. They allow one to outpace and outlast other players, and they also act as a motivational role model for those who may work for someone. Working hard and for long hours can signal to others that the job is important.

Of course, there are also risks in using high energy and long working hours as a way of leading. It can fail to take account of life outside of work and the various claims on our personal time and energy. At extremes, the result can be stress for the individual and a work environment that cultivates a culture of long work hours, rather than effectiveness.

Focus

People who exercise great influence tend to focus their energies. The analogy is the science experiment in which a magnifying glass is used to focus the sun's rays, causing dry grass to catch fire. By focusing the sun's rays we can make them much stronger.

In one study of successful general managers it was found that the majority tended to concentrate their careers in one industry and one company. It prevented their energy being diverted and attention was focused on a narrower set of concerns and problems. It also provided greater opportunity to develop a wide range of contacts and power bases upon which to leverage power.

In contrast many people still enter into important discussions, meetings and negotiations with no clear idea of what they want to achieve as an outcome. This makes it far more difficult for them to resist the influence of those people who know exactly what they want and where they are going. They are able to put all their energies into achieving these specific goals and therefore concentrate their influence and so increase the likelihood of success.

Sensitivity to Others

When trying to influence others it is useful to be able to understand the people concerned, i.e., know their interests and attitudes. Sensitivity refers to the ability to understand others, their position on the issues, how best to communicate with and influence them. It is necessary to be able to read others’ behavior so that their reactions and levels of resistance or support can be understood.

It inherently involves a willingness to put oneself in the other person’s shoes and to acknowledge that he/she may be different in their views, approach and style of doing things. One needs to take an interest in others and especially be able to listen to what others say or what they do not say. Ironically, the ability to understand what others want has a major impact on achieving one’s own personal goals.

Flexibility

The benefits of sensitivity are severely limited unless they are accompanied by the ability to modify behavior in light of what is understood about others. Flexibility allows leaders to change course and adapt new approaches rather than sticking with tactics that are failing. Whilst maintaining focus on the final goal, flexible leaders are able to take on board new information, adapt their styles and look for new ways to achieve the desired outcome. It is also an approach, which is more likely to build allies, as it shows a willingness to accommodate others’ views.

The absence of flexibility can lead to a rigid pursuit of personal goals and to the exclusion of all others. This may win few supporters and lead to an almost obsessive need to win at all costs. It can develop into a win-lose strategy, which is a dangerous game to play.

Ability to Tolerate Conflict

The reality of the organizational world is that we operate in an environment in which we come across disagreement, confrontation and conflict. The source of conflict may vary, as may the style in which it is expressed, yet it appears that today’s leaders need to exercise power in situations where there is conflict.

In fact, the pressure on our influencing skills are greatest in conflict situations. If there is no disagreement there will be little or no requirement to exercise power and influence. Where there is disagreement there needs to be willingness to engage in conflict.

Yet this can be far from simple to accomplish. For many people, conflict is a source of stress, something to be avoided at all costs. To avoid stress some people will go along with a view that they do not hold, or they will avoid bringing conflict out into the open, hoping that by ignoring it, it will disappear. If there is a strong need to be liked by others, engaging in conflict can be tough. Yet, to exercise power effectively, one often needs the independence to accept that we are unlikely to be able to "please all the people all of the time."

Being a Team Player

It is important to recognize the times when there is a need to fight, to be difficult and to push certain views. It is also vital to be able to make friends, build bridges and develop a network of contacts throughout the organization. Those who are able to develop power are able to change their behavior according to the needs and mood of the situation.

It is important to be able to get along with others, even when this means working with those with whom we may have little in common or whose views we have little time for. It means talking and listening to a wide range of people and gaining acceptance as one of the team.

Support may come from many places in an organization and it may come today, tomorrow or next year. The leader who wants to develop greater influence does not stand aloof, but works at gaining acceptance from others. Being accessible, helpful and learning the language of the team is an important way to build support for today, tomorrow and the years to come. This may mean putting their own personal feelings and liking to one side in order to work with others, but it is also a vital part of building the broad support needed for the effective leader.

Reputation, Trust and Credibility

The personal characteristics identified with those who have influence in organizations need to be seen as an integrated profile. Any trait needs to be counter-balanced by others. In the shorter term it may be possible to get one’s views accepted by pushing them through without too much consideration of others. However, in the longer term it is vital for the influential leader to develop credibility in the organization. Credibility may be based on many things, e.g., technical know-how, knowledge of the markets, personal integrity, and/or having a reputation for getting things done.

Influence is far simpler and more effective where there are good, strong working relationships, and where trust has been built between those involved. It is an investment that must be made to develop power.

Effective Communication

The communication process is about a message transferred from a sender to a receiver through a certain channel. The message should be understood by the receiver in the same manner as the sender intended it to be, especially since during the transfer of the message, various filters may cause the distortion of the original meaning. As result, the intended communication does not match the actual reception. This is why feedback on a continuous basis is essential.

message

feedback

Messages can be send by various means, such as through words, music or tone, or body language. Research has shown that words are actually the least important element in delivering a message, music comes second, while body language is the far most important element in the communication process.

Among the filters that can distort an intended communication process are the following:

• Selective perception: people tend to interpret what they see on the basis of their interest, attitudes and experience.
• Horn and Halo effects: the receiver perceives the sender as a devil (horn) or as an angel (halo).
• Stereotyping: individuals are judged on the basis of one’s perception, e.g., in terms of what group he/she belongs to, causing a bias.
• Projection: judging others assuming that they are similar to oneself.

Learning to Listen

As a receiver one should:

Ten Commandments for Good Listening

1. Stop talking!

You cannot listen if you are talking.

Polonius (Hamlet): Give every man thine (both) ear, but few thy (single) voice.

2. Put the Talker at Ease.

Help the talker feel free to talk. (This is often called a permissive environment)

3. Show the Talker that you want to Listen

Look and act interested. Do not read your mail while he or she talks. Listen to understand rather than to oppose.

4. Remove Distractions.

Don’t doodle, tap, or shuffle papers. Will it be quieter if you shut the door?

5. Empathize with the Talker.

Try to put yourself in the talker’s place so that you can see his or her point of view.

6. Be Patient.

Allow plenty of time. Do not interrupt the talker. Do not start for the door or walk away.

7. Hold your Temper

An angry person gets the wrong meaning from words.

8. Go easy on Argument and Criticism.

This puts the talker on the defensive. He or she may ‘clam up’ or get angry. Do not argue: even if you win, you lose.

9. Ask Questions.

This encourages the talker and shows you are listening. It helps to develop points further.

10. Stop Talking!

Empowering Others

It is part of the human nature that people work well together when they agree with one another and share in the task of setting and achieving the objectives of the whole team. One of the best ways to ensure that people agree on objectives and are motivated to achieve them is to make sure that they take part in setting them. To empower people does not mean to loose face or power, the contrary is true.

If one wants to know the opinion of others, he should let them talk without trying to influence them or being defensive. Others should not rely on you for answers; instead, when someone approaches you for an answer or a decision, ask first what he or she thinks. Using this technique does not mean that you do not have an opinion or are abdicating your leadership role, it means that you are encouraging others to solve their own problems. You are empowering them to take on some of the leadership role.

Listening and Rapport Building

A very important element in any communication process is an attitude of respect for the other. Respect and interest can be demonstrated by verbal and non-verbal means. Non-verbal signals include the following:

• Eye Contact
• Facial expressions
• Postures
• Nodding

General encouragement can be shown by expression such as:

• UN-huh
• " That's interesting"
• " Tell me more"
• " Give me an example"

The occurrence of matching (i.e., appearing to be on the same wave-length) is usually indicated by:

• Postures
• Voice speed
• Voice tone (e.g., serious, happy, upset)

Asking Questions

Whether during communication, in a problem-solving situation or a decision-making process, an effective leader should always ask questions.

Types of Question

There are two main types of questions: open and closed ones. Open questions will help you to gain lots of information, while closed questions illicit a "yes/no" type of answer and are basically useful for controlling conversations and for establishing specific facts.

• Open questions begin with key words such as: what?, where?, why?, when?, who?, how?

• Closed questions begin with a part of the verb such as: "Did you…?", "Do you…?", "Have you…?", "Are you...?"

An effective leader knows how to use the two types according to the situation and according to the purpose of the question (i.e., for inquiring, obtaining information, clarifying matters, or confirming details, etc.). If open and closed questions are used knowingly, one can both gather information and control conversations effectively.

The following questions should also be used sparingly:

• Multiple questions, e.g., asking too many questions too quickly.

à does not give the counterpart a chance to reply

à confuses the other person

• Loaded questions, e.g.: "What would happen to this organization if we all prioritized our work in the same haphazard way you do?"

• Trick questions, e.g.: "I know your results last month were poor, how do you think you're going to perform this month?"

Handling Tasks

very leader aims to achieve a preset goal in order to achieve a certain task. In order to achieve goals a clear plan is needed as is a classification of the required tasks in order to be able to set priorities. This is because some tasks are urgent, some are important and some are both, while others are neither. In the following these points will be discussed in detail.

Objectives and Priorities

1. You cannot do an objective or goal. You achieve your objectives by doing tasks or activities.
2. Activities which help you achieve your goals are effective. Methods which reduce the cost or time of tasks are efficient.
3. Organizing work and time is mainly about being more effective; e.g., completing a course or meeting on time or ahead of time is not necessarily effective.
4. A "progress" task is one which you believe may move you towards a position which is fundamentally better than the one you are in now, i.e., closer to your objectives.
5. A "maintenance" task is one which you know will move you towards a position equivalent to one you have been in before, e.g., filling up with petrol.
6. Urgent tasks are those which require or seem to require immediate attention (because the benefit will be lost otherwise, because of deadlines, because the boss says so).
7. Important tasks have a high pay-off, but may not be urgent.
8. You need to be aware of how your time is currently being spent in relation to important, urgent, maintenance and progress tasks.
9. You may need to take action to make time for these tasks if they are being neglected.
10. This may mean reducing interruptions, arranging quiet time, saying "no," renegotiating priorities with your boss.

Priorities

Priority setting is not always an easy task. The following exercise will demonstrate this:

Time Management

The Time Management Matrix ("Put first things first")

Problem Solving  

Below follows the description of a situation and a problem, which the participants are required to read. In the first step, they are then asked to try to solve the problem individually, and in the second step, to solve it in a team. The outcome of this exercise will show how the very same problem is solved individually (one input) and as a team (several inputs), which methods are used in either case, and which is the better way to operate.

The problem situation described below is based on actual cases, in which men and women lived or died, depending upon the survival decisions they made. Your life or death will depend upon how well your group can share its present knowledge of a relative unfamiliar problem, so that the group can make decisions, which will lead to your survival.

1. the number of survivors is the same as the number in your team
2. you are the actual people in the situation
3. the team has agreed to stick together
4. all items are dry and in good condition.

WILDERNESS SURVIVAL RANKING SHEET

INDIVIDUAL SCORE TEAM SCORE

After filling in the Wilderness Survival Ranking Sheet, the participants were given the following process analysis paper to evaluate the exercise and state in which manner they have benefited from it.

Process Analysis

Please mark your level of agreement or disagreement with the statements below:

Decision-Making

As part of the problem-solving process decisions must be made, the goal being to decide as rational as possible as decision affect lives, the course of an organization, policies, etc. This is not always an easy task, sometimes decision have to be made alone, sometimes together with others, and sometimes under pressure. The decision-making process itself can employ a wide range of methods, the efficiency of which often depends on the given context and circumstances. The main decision-making methods are described in the following:

1. The Boss Decides: The leader makes the decisions without consulting the group in any way.
2. The Expert Decides: The group selects an expert inside or outside its members, lets him consider the issues, and has him tell the group what to do. The group does not discuss the issue, but leaves it to the expert.
3. Average of Individuals' Opinions: The boss asks each member of the group for his opinion, and then chooses the most frequent response, or what he/she feels will on average satisfy the group's desires.
4. Group Meeting, then Boss Decides: A group meeting is called and the issue discussed until the leader feels sure in his/her own mind what the right decision should be, and then announces it to the group.
5. Postpone it and Hope: The issue is avoided and postponed indefinitely, in the hope that if it is avoided long enough, no decision will be needed.
6. Leave it to Chance: Choose a random event to make the decision for the group, e.g., rolling a dice, flipping a coin, or seeing which applicant phones first, etc.
7. Majority Rule: The group discusses the issue until at least 51% of the members agree on one option and then a vote is taken and the decision made.
8. Minority Rules, Ok?: Two or more members of the group, who constitute less than half of it, make the decision with or without the group's consent.
9. Consensus: A group decision is reached, either with perfect agreement, or more often when everyone feels they have had a fair chance to influence the decision, and feels some commitment to it.

Problems arise constantly; an effective leader must be able to take care of the problems and try to solve them in a process-oriented way. The following exercise is designed to measure the ability of people to work within a team and to solve problems from a team perspective.

Enabling Exercise: Team Assignment

A reorganization of your group is being considered. For now, please get into an initial position. Each person should choose a position in the row of spaces marked on the floor so that:

1. The central space is empty

1. Each of the other spaces is occupied by one person

1. Everyone is facing inwards towards the empty space.

Write your names or initials in the diagram below, so that you will have a record of your original assigned location

Instructions: Your task is to "re-align" the people in you team.

The Task: You need to get the people in your team into new locations. Doing this will require getting people who are currently standing in one pattern moved to another pattern, according to certain rules. The current pattern has people standing in a row facing each other across an empty space, like this:

The desired pattern has each set of people standing in the same order, but on opposite sides of the empty space, facing outward, like this:

Systematic Approach to Planning and Problem Solving

Problems cannot be solved randomly; whoever is faced with having to solve a problem should use a systematic and rational approach that consists of several steps, which should be considered as flexible (i.e., one can move from one step to the other and go back to the previous without any friction). The following steps should be part of the problem solving process:

Effective Meetings

It most basic, a meeting is a ‘getting together’ for a particular purpose such as sharing information, solving problems or making decisions.

For the initiator of a meeting the main role is to ensure that the meeting achieves results. To ensure success the following skills for managing the five key steps of effective meetings are needed:

1. Preparation before the meeting
2. Opening the meeting
3. Running the meeting
4. Closing the meeting
5. Following up.

1. Preparation

Key areas to be considered when preparing for a meeting include:

1. Having a Clear Objective: Make sure you and everyone else involved is fully aware of exactly why the meeting is being held. What do want the outcome of the meeting to be? If you are unsure of this aspect, the meeting is unlikely to be fully effective - it may become extremely time consuming.
2. Being Fully Briefed: Make sure you have done all your "homework". Have you collated all the information you need? Are you fully aware of the facts? Are they relevant and up-to-date? Time spent at this stage can save embarrassment later!
3. Planning Key Points: What key points do you want to cover during the meeting? Put together the ‘bullet points’ that you want to cover. You cannot ‘script’ a meeting, but you can make sure that you have a logical progression to the areas you want to address.
4. Anticipating Likely Responses: You cannot ‘script’ a meeting, but you can anticipate the likely responses you are going to encounter, and therefore you can prepare some alternatives/options suited to those responses.
5. Arranging a Mutually Convenient Date/Time/Location: This can be quite an ordeal, especially if you have to coordinate a number of diaries! When considering where to hold the meeting, think about whether it would be better to meet on ‘neutral’ territory. Meeting on ‘your’ territory might give you an ‘advantage.’ Going to ‘their’ territory might send messages of your desire to be ‘cooperative.’

2. Opening

The three main steps to opening a meeting are as follows:

1. Creating the Right Impression/Atmosphere: First impressions are formed very quickly (apparently within the first seven seconds of meeting someone!). There is no second chance to create a good first impression; if you ‘get it wrong’ it can take an awfully long time for someone to change their initial opinion of you. Consider the following:

• Think carefully about what to wear (dress in a way that makes you part of the group, not alien to it).
• Keep handshakes firm, not bone-crushing and eye contact direct not staring.
• Keep any opening remarks concise and non contentious.
• Remember; smile (if appropriate)!

1. Setting the Agenda: This does not necessarily have to be a formal affair, i.e., a lengthy document that is circulated six weeks in advance, but some key points about what is going to be covered during the meeting would be useful for all concerned (not least, you - as a useful reminder of what you want to cover).
2. Keeping an Open Mind: If you are the one instigating a meeting and the agenda is ‘yours,’ you may be tempted into assuming that everything is going to go your way. You will need to keep an open mind. Try not to attend the meeting with too many preconceived ideas. Welcome and invite the opinions of others. Contemplate points of view that are counter to yours carefully – do not dismiss them too quickly.

3. Running the Meeting

Meetings constitute a more formal mode of conversation, so you will need to practice the following skills in order to ensure that the meeting is successful:

1. Asking appropriate questions
2. Listening actively
3. Keeping to the agenda
4. Keeping in control
5. Receiving information with an open mind
6. Giving information honestly
7. Ensuring common understanding
8. Watching the time! (more than two hours and the meeting is likely to be ineffective).

4. Closing the Meeting

When the meeting comes to its close, the following should have been done:

1. The objective was achieved
2. The key points were summarized and clarified
3. Action points were agreed upon (what is to be done, by whom and when)
4. The time and place for the next meeting, if appropriate, were agreed upon.

5. Following Up

The ending of a meeting is often a beginning; once a meeting is over, the minutes of it should be recorded as soon as possible, while salient points are still fresh in your mind. Remember, the minutes DO NOT have to be a verbatim account of the meeting itself. They need to reflect the key points discussed and, where appropriate, highlight what was said by whom. Minutes should be circulated to those who attended the meeting and other interested parties. Do not forget to achieve all necessary action points in the time-scales agreed, and take a few minutes to analyze the success (or otherwise!) of your meeting, i.e., ask yourself what would you do differently (if anything) next time round, and why?

Team Building

hen building and/or working in teams one should be aware of the fact that people are different and therefore also motivated in different ways; what motivates one person does not necessarily motivate others. The following small exercise will illustrate this:

1. Achievement
2. Freedom of control
3. Recognition (appreciation, credit)
4. Status (position, rank)
5. Salary
6. Responsibility for managing others
7. Advancement (career progression)
8. Intrinsically satisfying work
9. Being part of a team
10. Pleasant working conditions
11. Job security
12. Mobility

When building teams, the following steps should be followed:

Team Development Spectrum

How to Gain the Most from Working in a Group

A group of individuals who have a task will usually approach it on the basis of their own styles and preferred methods of working, without clarifying exactly how they are going to go about the business of working together effectively as a group. (A group being more than just a set of different and disparate individuals!).

Groups that work together most effectively usually have a clearly stated and understood method of working, which they have discussed and agreed upon before tackling the task in front of them. The approach outlined below is a guideline, and you may wish to amend it, drawing upon each other's experience of working in other groups.

You will probably find that as you spend time together on different tasks and get to know one another better your method will evolve. Once you have developed a clear approach to working effectively together it is easy to adapt it to whatever task you address. The method of working can be discussed and agreed upon irrespective of the task.

Guidelines to a method of working in groups include the following:

1. Understanding the Task

Check that everyone in the group understands what is being asked of them, and that all have the same understanding of the task. Often a group will progress a task only to find that people are working on different agendas, and pulling in different directions. Sometimes this leads to a group still struggling to understand the task having run out of time. Gaining a clear and shared understanding of the task to begin with saves time.

2. Agreeing on the Objective

Once the task requirements have been understood the group can discuss and agree on the objective.

A reliable objective should be:

S Specific

M Measurable

A Achievable

R Realistic

T Time orientated

If as a group you find that you cannot meet an objective then it is maybe due to it being too general or unrealistic within the time frame. It is important to review the objectives as you go along to ensure you are on track.

3. Gather Information and Share Resources

When as a group you are clear as to the objective it is important to find out what, if any, other information is needed and what resources are available within the group by way of particular strengths and skills. It may also be useful that this point to be clear about possible limitations of the group, and/or areas of development for individuals.

4. Develop a Plan

Time spent on developing and agreeing to a plan of action is never a waste of time - it will save time spent on completing the task.

Many groups tend to be action-orientated and leap into the task without thinking about it. Whilst the group may successfully complete the task it is often through a last-minute scramble, less effective decision-making, and non-inclusion of some group members.

5. Review</