III. Maintenance and Restoration Work in the Old City

(Part2)

Load-bearing, self-supporting and retaining walls

A common feature of almost every winter in the City is at least one structural collapse incident. Modes of failure vary widely between respective locations, being only local in some cases and total in others. In incidents of local failure, only minor damage was reported, whereas total collapse inoften caused extensive material losses and human injury at times. Only remedial repair operations shall be discussed at this stage. As in the case of structural foundations in Old City buildings, most benefit shall be gained from direct reference to real-life incidents that occurred within the last few years.

Maintenance work carried out after collapse had occured shall be discussed separately from pre-emptive operations that were performed on damaged parts to ensure their future stability and durability. Field observations obtained in the last few years have allowed the formulation of a general collapse theory in relation to load-bearing, self-supporting and retaining walls in the Old City.

Firstly, local buckling, with relatively minor damage, occured in load-bearing walls at approximately mid-height and covered less than one third of the total clear height of the wall. Secondly, self-supporting and retaining walls that supported earth fill generally collapsed in an overturning mode, with almost all of the wall external stone surface being pushed out of place, along with a sizeable thickness of the intermediate clay/rubble layer, causing substantial damage in the process. In the more severe cases, notably after heavy rain or snowfall, the extra pressure induced within the intermediate clay/rubble layer had initiated failure (overturning) in both stone faces of the double-leafed self-supporting walls. Theoretically, each stone face had acted as a seperate retaining wall, supporting half the thickness of the intermediate layer, and had collapsed as a result of not being able to resist active forces within it.

Restoration of collapsed members

It is recommended that collapsed structural members be rebuilt without delay, and in as close a form as possible to the original pre-collapse state. Speed of the reconstruction process is essential for both technical as well as administrative considerations; the latter being concerned with the local authority's requirement that permits be obtained if reconstruction work was delayed.

Typical incidents

In December 1983, a heavy snowstorm resulted in serious damage to many buildings all over the City. In particular, two incidents were reported where complete wall profiles collapsed shortly after the storm had ended. At a privately owned home in the Christian Quarter of the City, the one-storey outermost stone wall, which partly supported a reinforced concrete roof slab, completely collapsed without warning, with all the rubble falling into the adjacent busy street. The building contractor began by clearing out the rubble that almost blocked the public passage. Following that, support jacks were placed underneath the surprisingly still intact, but cracked, roof slab in order to prevent further collapse. Next, and upon the request of the homeowner, more interested in saving money than in finding an ideal acceptable solution, the contractor erected two reinforced concrete columns at both ends of the collapsed wall profile and used 10-cm thick hollow cement blocks to fill the intermediate distance.

Finally, a cement plaster layer was applied to the hollow block surface. The end product seemed acceptable from a structural point of view since no appreciable loading was expected in future. However, the new construction was rejected by everyone who saw it except the homeowner. The rectangular patch of cement surface looked out of place in the continuous stone profile. As it turned out, cracks appeared very rapidly across the new brick wall and in the roof slab, especially along the joining line between the two. Regrettably, the residents could do nothing about the incorrect repairs.

At a small alley off the Via Dolorosa, and within a few days of the first incident, a 4m high, 8m long, double faced stone wall partially collapsed without warning. The wall, bordering the Afghan compound in Jerusalem from the west side, supported a 2.5 m deep earth fill layer from the compound's side. The Waqf engineer instructed the contractor to dismantle the undemolished one metre or so (four successive horizontal stone patterns) and immediately start work on the formwork for a new concrete wall, 30 m thick, in the same position. The concrete wall was to support the fill layer and was thus provided with drainage outlets, at regular spacings.

Since funds were allocated according to the engineer's request, the same old stone blocks were rebuilt against the concrete wall, allowing for the positions of the drainage outlets. Finally, kuhla was applied and a thin 2 cm thick concrete "mini-slab" was placed on the top surface to prevent vertical rainwater drainage through the new wall, as well as to provide a smooth uppermost surface finish.

Near collapse incidents

A random inspection tour of Old City residential buildings would reveal shocking findings in relation to near-collapse situations. The unfortunate homeowners faced with such prospects generally adopted one of four courses of action: evacuating their dwellings; carrying out minor repairs independently; applying for outside help (the AWIA mostly); doing nothing, and waiting for God's mercy. While awaiting their turn in the AWIA's long waiting list, most residents decide to carry out some action on their own. Such action, however, resulted in more damage than good at times.

In many situations where severe structural damage was threatening the stability of a particular structure, residents were known to naively carry out minor surface repairs, such as plastering and kuhla; either as a result of ignorance or lack of funds.

The following situations where pre-emptive action was taken provide a general insight into the commonly adopted approaches in relation to structural maintenance in the Old City today.

At the intersection of Aquabat Alkhalidiyya and Aquabat Alsarayya, in the residential sector of the Moslem Quarter, the proprietors of a one-storey structure, currently a spacious carpentry workshop, constantly complained from multiple defects, varying in severity, and ranging between lumpy floors, eroded interior wall and ceiling plaster, deteriorated stone partitions and, most important of all, an external corner wall at the two streets' intersection. The four metre high stone wall consisted mainly of large blocks. The general wall profile was tilted outward in an alarming manner, at a very steep angle to the vertical plane. Many regular users of the two streets went out of their way to avoid passing the unsafe structure. The overall depth of the double-faced wall was well over 1.5m in most areas, but far greater at the corner where exact measurement was not possible (and not necessary either). Since no signs of damage were evident on the interior walls, it was decided that only the exterior be repaired, especially because funds were limited.

Initially, it was necessary to remove all the stone blocks on either side of the corner. A scaffold tower was erected at full height 4 m from both sides. The first problem the contractor had to deal with was to avoid the obstruction of pedestrian traffic in both roads. With his limited resources, the contractor was eventually forced to use twice the amount of timber originally planned for the job. The scaffolding had to span the whole width of both roads to maintain free access. The stone dismantling process was then started at the top row; the builder found enormous difficulty in mastering the large size and weight of individual blocks. After accidentally dropping a large block from three metres and only causing damage to the street tiles, the builder improved his performance. Another mistake, for which he had to pay heavily later on, was of not labelling individual blocks on removing them. In any case, a reinforced concrete wall, 0.25 m thick on average, was poured into the whole 4 m height, using steel bars in both directions. The builder then began preparations for rebuilding the stone profile.

The first few horizontal rows were easy enough to fix, after which the first signs of trouble appeared. The builder, who was more accustomed to modern construction, which generally uses 25cm wide, 8cm thick blocks, repeatedlyattempted to re-position each row of blocks without success. A few days later, the main contractor had to bring in a specialized stone layer, who was asked to cut blocks to size. With most of the originally removed blocks used up in that process, the contractor was left with a large quantity of useless pieces, and had to search for new stones of compatible shape and type in other parts of the City. The fact that most blocks were severely deteriorated and relatively soft added to the overall wasted material and made the stone cutter's job much more demanding than originally anticipated. Once all stones were fixed, and the wall profile was completed, white kuhla was applied.

On the whole, the supposedly profitable job not only required three times the originally planned duration, but cost the contractor a sizeable personal loss that made him reconsider his venturing into Old City construction work in the future.

It must be pointed out that in 80% of similar situations, an identical procedure is adopted, particularly for walls overlooking public roads. In the remaining 20%, especially where interior partitions or load bearing walls are concerned, it is customary to demolish existing structurally weak members in favour of substitute concrete walls which are advantageous in view of their reduced thickness, creating additional floor space.

In situations where insufficient funds were allocated, an even less costly procedure was generally adopted, where demolition costs were saved by pouring the concrete directly into the eroded surface.

Floor and roof slabs

Quite a few incidents of total roof or floor collapse have been reported in the Old City during the last decade or two. This is both surprising in some respects, and understandable in others, especially in view of the local unusual environmental circumstances. It would be expected by anyone who comes across numerous locations where 2 cm cracks could be seen extending across a 1 m thick slab or wide ditches of settled floor tiles, that collapse incidents were very common in the Old City. It would be surprising, however, when one takes into account the large thicknesses of slabs and their stable and durable construction.

Having already established relevant theoretical aspects of Old City slab construction, it would be sufficient to mention a few examples where actual failure (partial or total) had occurred, and a few others where repairs have been performed in time to avoid possible failure.

Collapse incidents

During the past 12 months (1987-1988), at least seven partial and total collapse incidents were recorded in various parts of the City. Luckily no fatal or serious injuries were caused. None of those incidents bore any resemblance to the others, in regards to features, modes of failure and treatment techniques adopted in each case.

In the first incident, which was refered to earlier in the theoretical analysis of slab design, only partial collapse occured in a 1 x 2 m patch at the corner of a bedroom ceiling roof slab. It was noticeable that failure was totally unexpected; a birthday celebration had barely ended inside the same room. Also noticeable was the fact that other parts of the slab remained intact, without the slightest evidence of structural damage as might be expected. The homeowner, a low-income employee, was mainly concerned with his family's safety. He was more inclined towards adopting a basic solution that would include the removal of the old slab and replacing it with a new reinforced concrete substitute. Two major obstacles had forced him to abandon his initial plans. Firstly, the cost of work, secondly, the upper floor occupants' outright refusal of cooperation, particularly in providing access to labourors, and sharing in part of the costs. The latter's condition for cooperation, and only in regards to providing access to the workers, was that since they did not (in their own opinion) suffer the neighbours' misfortune, they would expect the installation of new marble floor tiles for their home, without contributing anything towards its cost.

Eventually, the homeowner, who could not afford the maintenance costs of his own home, had to be content with the services of a local building contractor to carry out minor repairs. The latter had again tried to convince occupants of the upper floor to allow him the use of an opening in their floor area for pouring concrete and then repairing the resultant damages. Upon their rejecting his proposal, he had to perform a patchy repair job that involved placing a timber scaffold underneath the whole slab area, for temporary support. He used a concrete gravel mix to fill the opening, a largely ineffective operation, carried through with great difficulty.

A few days later, the scaffolding was dismantled and new wall and ceiling plaster applied. To the homewner's distress, a crack across the dividing line between the old and new surfaces developed less than three weeks after work was completed.

In the second incident, at a privately owned home in Harat Alsaadiyya neighbourhood, the first floor of a two-storey building caught fire and was immediately evacuated. Firemen were aided by a large number of volunteers from all over the neighbourhood. As the last fireman was leaving the premises, the floor slab at the building's entrance, a 4 x 2.8 m rectangular strip, collapsed suddenly causing minor injuries to the fireman and another. Both had fallen through a sedimentation pit, previously unknown, at two metres below the landing level.

A brief site investigation revealed a much older structure below ground level. It had been transformed at some time into a sewage pit for the above-ground structure. This conclusion was reached after 4" clay pipes were observed on the side wall, passing through the collapsed floor. Another indication was the beautiful arched stone construction in the lower level, which meant that the pit was previously an inhabited chamber.

A building contractor was brought in and immediately filled the half emptied hole with rubble and stones up to 30 cm below the original ground level. A new sewage pipe was then placed with two manholes at convenient positions, before a reinforced concrete slab was poured on top; steel reinforcement was fixed in both directions.

At another location in Alwad road, a homeowner wished to replace the eroded stone tiles of his second storey home with new mosaic substitutes. The building contractor summoned advised him to do something about the leaky roof of his bedroom, which consisted of weathered timber planks covered with a sloping red-tiled roof, erected almost 100 years ago. Encouraged by the contractor's good reputation and his willingness to accept monthly installments for his work, the homeowner finally agreed. The contractor soon started to remove the old tiles, and erected steel scaffolding for the ceiling and roof, which were to be completely dismantled and replaced by a new reinforced concrete solid slab. Once the roof was cleared out and formwork was set for the new slab, steel reinforcement was fixed for the edge beams and the slab area. Only hours before concrete was due to be poured, and while the sixty year old homeowner was inspecting the formwork on the floor level, he felt a sudden vibration and, before he knew it, found himself falling through a large hole into the public cafe directly underneath. Steel jacks accompanied him on the short trip through the two-metre wide hole. Luckily, the jacks did not fall onto the old man who, in addition to a fractured leg, had to put up with the extra expense of another reinforced concrete slab. The cafe owner was kind enough to relieve the homeowner of any compensation for damages to his property.

As for the subsequent repair process, the experienced contractor took upon himself the design of required steel reinforcement, concrete section sizes and the general job strategy. Cleverly, he made use of the extra wall thickness at the sides, which was utilized as a continuous bench for the edge beams. Otherwise, he relied on using excessive reinforcement and oversized concrete sections in his design.

Pre-emptive work

Pre-emstructural repair work undertaken by homeowners in damaged Old City buildings varied in nature and style according to the wishes of individuals and his/her financial capabilities more than anything else. Such issues are best illustrated by the following cases which also cast some light on other related considerations such as access, location.

In terms of structural requirements, it is typical to demolish severely damaged members in favour of new, durable replacements. Such procedure could not be always followed in the Old City where the need to maintain and preserve the original form overcomes practical considerations whenever possible.

At numerous locations, particularly where flat or slightly domed roofs were covered with deteriorated stone tiles or suffered minor cracking, homeowners chose to remove unfit, damaged surfaces along with as much as safely possible from the underlying earth fill, typically up to 40 cm, and pour a new plain or reinforced concrete slab, up to 15 cm thick, topped with a final smooth finish; white quartz powder is usual. The wide popular use of this technique accounts for the noticeable increase in concrete roof surfaces observed today in the Old City. At other locations, where sufficient funds were available, either the original stone tiles or new replacements were placed on the concrete to maintain a compatible style of construction.

The technique described above has so far produced favourable results in terms of reducing seepage of rainwater as well as improving the strength and durability of structures. In addition, the removal of the fill layer contributes to the lengthening of the design lives of treated structures. It must be remembered, however, that the effectiveness of concrete-clay-rubble interaction has not been tested long enough to allow any generalisations in that respect.

In one rare incident, a relatively well-off homeowner, aided by his two relatively experienced builder sons, became fed up with his home's damp walls and irregular vaulted ceiling which prevented modern furniture from being brought in, so had decided to reshape the basic structure of his old home. At first, a new reinforced concrete solid slab was poured on top of the one-storey structure roof area, composed of two adjacent rooms of four by four metres, on either side of an open courtyard equal in size to both rooms. Reinforced concrete beams were placed at four metre intervals in the shorter direction in addition to an L-shaped edge beam on the perimeter. One week later, workers began the demolition of the old vaulted roofs and the removal of the huge quantities of resulting rubble, which amounted to 100 cubic metres and required the better part of a whole week to be completely cleared out.

Shortly afterwards, work started on demolishing the thick dividing and surrounding walls which were to support the reinforced concrete slab recently erected. The operation was carried out in short stages. Plain concrete walls, 30m thick were poured in place of the removed wall portions. Reinforced concrete columns were also placed at the corners, using steel bars.

Another 55 cubic metres of waste material was disposed of during the two weeks it took to complete the job. The delighted homeowner was finally left with four rectangular rooms with plain concrete surfaces that nicely suited his plans for modernising the house furniture. This work procedure was ideal only to the homeowner and contractors. The job was extremely difficult throughout all stages of work and could have easily been executed in a more direct, efficient, and less costly procedure. The homeowner and contractors defended their action on the basis of not being able to obtain an authority license for the job, and thus the need for discretion.

Reinforced concrete slabs have been the most popular choice for structurally damaged domes of all shapes in the Old City. This discussion emphasizes the restraints and obstacles that obstruct the execution of construction work in such surroundings, rather than analysing the technique itself. Restoration and maintenance of domed structures is one of the most challenging tasks facing architects and engineers in the City. In general terms, all adopted treatment techniques so far have provided a temporary, with respect to structural stability, as well as the conservation of authentic features. Recommended operations are generally decided by economic considerations. In conservation, archaeologists and a large proportion of architects advocate very strongly the preservation of authentic material and features of existing construction, engineers are more often than not forced to alter shapes or introduce additions to instable original members.

As professionals involved in maintenance and restoration work ascertain, the structural behaviour of domed sections is on the whole unpredictable. Surface inspections have often proved to be deceiving and provided misguiding evidence, especially while construction work was taking place. Engineers, therefore, recommend the swift application of suitable reinforcement and the provision of adequate support throughout the duration of work.

Reference shall be made to this particular phenomenon in more detail shortly with the aid of analogous recent incidents in which two domed slabs had partially collapsed without prior warning. As mentioned earlier, the "perfect" procedure adopted in recent years for the repair of structurally damaged or deteriorated domed slabs in the Old City, involved the total removal of surface tiles, to be followed by pouring reinforced concrete, and a final thin film of asphalt for water-proofing.

Ideally, it would be desirable to re-apply the original surface tiles or bring in identical substitutes, as the exact re-application of the original tiles is not always possible even by the most skilled and experienced craftsmen. This is the best procedure so far. Unfortunately, as with all good things, the procedure does have its drawbacks. First is the relatively high cost of the operation, up to ten times that of alternatives. Some homeowners choose to apply kuhla (pointing) to the deteriorated tiles, an operation that costs in the region of five dollars per square metre; whereas the above mentioned process could cost up to 50 dollars per square metre.

Other drawbacks include the excess weight of concrete poured in, and the practical difficulty of execution. The most clear advantage in addition to providing extra strength to the domed structure is the preservation of the original form of construction. In the same context, and before moving on to examples, it is worth noting that other typical procedures adopted by homeowners included the double treatment of external kuhla to the stone tiles, together with the application of new ceiling plaster to the internal surface. This form of treatment depends for its success on the skill of specialised craftsmen in kuhla and plastering as well as the time of execution of both operations (with maximum benefit if work is performed during spring and summer).

Analogous situations and restraints

The two domed structures referred to earlier provide typical examples of the extent of deceit surface conditions may present. In the first incident, at a private home in Harat Alsaadiyya, and while builders were attempting to remove the eroded surface tiles to prepare it for a new reinforced concrete slab, one of the workers fell through a one metre diameter hole that literally punctured the slab thickness.

Inspection of the interior ceiling plaster had previously shown evidence of local failure as did the roof surface which only included a small number of deteriorated tiles. In fact, the internal ceiling plastering was renewed in the early stages of the maintenance operation, only a few days before the accident.

As was later discovered, the slab cross-section consisted largely of loosely assembled 2" diametre, 20-30 cm long clay pipes, placed at right angles to the curved surface of the dome, and surrounded by a clay/rubble mixture in typical fashion. The eventually demolished 4.50 x 5.20 m rectangular slab produced twenty cubic metres of ruthat were disposed of in 25 tractor journeys. As the builder commenced the erection of formwork for the new slab, his main obstacle was the non-uniform, irregular state of the surface perimeter which was to support the edge beams, and thus the whole slab area. In the end, the builder had to carry out minor repairs such as levelling of the uppermost surface (using a plaster mortar mix), and rebuilding the eroded parts of the surrounding walls.

In the second incident in the Bab Hutta neighbourhood, and in the same manner as the previous case, a 1.50 m thick rubble/gravel slab cross-section had also collapsed suddenly at one corner. The builder immediately observed new cracks developing in the walls and other parts of the slab that had not collapsed.

Initially, the homeowner had agreed to demolish the whole slab completely, and replace it by a flat concrete substitute. However, as preparations were under way for the new construction, cracks began to expand at an alarming rate, especially along the supposedly load-bearing walls. The desperate homeowner gave his approval for a complete demolition that would include bringing down all the surrounding walls and their reconstruction from ground level. The homeowners' initial budget was now multiplied at least ten times, and he had to look for other sources of funding. His request was partially granted by the Waqf Administration which also assigned an engineer to carry on with the supervision of work.

In this particular incident not the slightest evidence of structural damage was previously evident, and only when workers began the peeling of old plaster in the interior walls and ceiling did the hole suddenly develop in the slab. It was not unknown for homeowners who secretly wished to get rid of their domed roofs to deceive the Waqf engineer during maintenance work by intentionally bringing down the roof slabs of their homes in his absence. In such situations, the unknowing engineer would agree on the construction of new reinforced concrete slabs on behalf of the Waqf. Such incidents have become uncommon, however, as the Waqf Administrations's financial resources had diminished in the recent years and homeowners were forced to contribute towards the additional costs.

Restraints and limitations

All construction work inside the Old City of Jerusalem is laborious and unpleasant. In addition to all its undesirable environmental features, construction operations prove very hazardous particularly when dealing with high altitudes. Domed surfaces represent a typical example of such restraints associated with reinforced concrete pouring in such conditions including:

Concrete pouring and steel fixing

Especially in point-arched domes, steel fixing and concrete pouring have proved to be extremely treacherous. Construction workers have experienced great difficulty in fixing steel reinforcement bars at equal spacings or at ideally required positions. On many occasions, it was only possible to literally throw bars in the longitudinal and transverse directions without much accuracy. The more skilled and patient steel fixers however took special care in placing bars along pre-specified looped patterns in the horizontal plane, and convergent patterns at equal spacings in the vertical plane. As for the concrete pouring, the process often proved to be even more demanding, with particular difficulty experienced in maintaining a uniform thickness throughout the curved dome surface. Adding to the imperfection of the end product was the unwillingness of most builders and contractors to spend more time in the process, restricting themselves to using primitive techniques in spite of the emphasis on standard and quality of work under such conditions. Workers were content with preparing site mixed hard concrete that would be easier to control on the curved surfaces. On many occasions, the use of liquid concrete mixes was very disadvantageous, especially as the concrete continued to spill over the side walls and could not be controlled as desired.

Safety and local access

The most serious restraint facing workers during domed-surface repairs is the lack of surrounding space, a severe threat to operators and pedestrians alike. This feature is mostly experienced in small sized domes (not greater than 2 x 2 m) with very little or no adjacent flat space for comfortable maneuvering. Two locations immediately spring to mind, when workers could not even place their feet on half the area of the dome nearer the street side. Both domes were situated at the top of three-storey structures that overlooked Alwad road, one of the busiest in the City. A number of labourers brought in for the concreting of the domed surface refused to take part in the operation, understandably fearing for their safety.

Eventually, the contractors had to make do with low-rate workers who were tied with ropes and allowed to move to the edges of the tricky surfaces of the respective domes. Their continuous slipping was mostly to blame for the poor quality of the final product. There were frequent complaints from shopkeepers and pedestrians who were more than inconvenienced by the dropping building material that in some cases caused damage to underlying shop signs and windows.

Architectural Restoration and Maintenance

It would be extremely difficult to separate engineering and architecture in relation to maintenance and restoration work in the Old City. This categorisation was mainly followed for clarification of individual items of work. Many of the items discussed below have also been performed in a structural capacity. It must be remembered that the discussion is generally based on operations carried out wholly or partly on behalf of AWIA affiliated bodies in charge of maintenance of residential buildings in the Old City. Most operations have been performed upon requests of homeowners, either tenants or landlords.

Plastering

By far the most common single item of work, wall and ceiling plaster accounts for almost two thirds of the total spent on maintenance of Moslem owned property inside the Old City. In addition to its architectural value and significance, plastering is utilized on many occasions in structural support roles, where other alternative procedures were either too laborious or costly. Only experienced and highly skilled plasterers have proved able to handle Old City plasterwork and achieve an acceptable standard, especially in that most walls and ceilings are rarely formed from uniform rectangular surfaces, as is the case in new construction.

A typical Old City room includes three to five recessed wall cupboards with arched boundaries that require the utmost care and the greatest of skill to finish smoothly. Ceilings, especially moulded and patterned surfaces, are the most difficult to complete, with craftsmen having to balance themselves on primitive scaffolding while attempting to produce the perfect finish. It could be said with certainty that the skill and experience of individual plasterers plays a major role in determining the final form and shape of interior walls and ceilings.

Dampness plays an equally important role during and after the application of a new layer of plaster. With many locations suffering from severe dampness and inadequate, unhealthy ventilation levels, plasterers are often faced with working on wet surfaces that consume a lot more material than under normal circumstances. Applied mortar generally takes longer to dry out, and continues to fall off, especially in ceiling plaster, as applied. It is very unusual to obtain an acceptable quality of work under such circumstances.

It has been common for each of the three layers of plaster to be separated by periods as long as two weeks before work commenced on the next stage. As mentioned earlier, in many cases, plasterwork had been used in a structural capacity, providing extra strength or bonding at exposed weak sections. The most common use in that capacity was the treatment of small and medium sized cracks in walls and ceilings. Local engineers encourage the use of 20-30 cm wide wire mesh rolls along cracked lines. The mesh is fixed between layers one antwo of plaster, for maximum efficiency. In the case of large cracks, small chunks of stone/gravel are used together with a strong mortar mix to fill in the cracks, before the normal procedure began. In some cases, where cracks developed across critical sections, it was typical to make 10 cm wide openings up to 10 cm deep, before filling the opened crack with a strong mortar mix, then using the wire mesh as before.

In walls that exhibited a high level of non-uniformity, measured as that requiring over 10 cm of plaster for an acceptable compatible surface, it has been common to use hollow cement blocks to fill where appropriate. In the more extreme cases, a whole new brick wall was erected for practical considerations.

The frequency of replacement of wall and ceiling plaster in Old City buildings varied widely from one location to another. In general terms, new plaster would need to be replaced every three to five years in damp locations, and up to every ten years in average environments.

Kuhla - pointing

Kuhla is the Arabic term for the bonding filler, mortar mix, that is applied between stone blocks. The process has many uses and variations, all requiring skillful operators and special hand tools; electrically powered tools are used on certain occasions. Kuhla operations in Old City structures generally consume two to three times the quantity of material required in modern buildings as a result of the deteriorated nature of stone blocks. Kuhla lines are generally wider in Old City buildings, reaching up to 5cm in some locations, compared to a typical width of 1cm in new construction. In cases where deterioration of stones was excessive, it had been common to apply plaster instead. Uses of kuhla in Old City construction include:

Beauty and elegance: skillful application of kuhla creates a more pleasant sight on stone profiles, adding a feeling of visual uniformity and symmetry; rainwater resistance: stone kuhla prevents, or at least reduces, the seepage of rainwater by firstly blocking its entry through the surface, and secondly by inviting moisture in the inner layers to pass through it into the outside surface; strength: kuhla is a bonding material, cementing blocks of stone together, since it is physically impossible for the brittle non-uniformly edged blocks to be exactly placed on each other. When stone tiles are used in roofs and open yards, kuhla is applied for additional strength as a local bonding agent and for water seepage resistance.

Typically, kuhla of stone wall profiles requires replacement every 10-15 years, that of roof and floor tiles, every five to eight years; most often for frequently used roofs and floors.

Floor and wall tiles

As reported earlier, the vast majority of Old City residential and other structures have stone floor tiles, with varying surface areas, thicknesses and extent of deterioration, depending on age, maintenance frequency, use and type of stone. It is regrettable that since the second half of the century in particular, homeowners were more tempted to replace their homes' existing floors by concrete mosaic or marble tiles. Especially in the last decade or so, over 30% of Old City dwellings have altered the tiles of their floors.

Ceramic wall tiles are used in bathrooms and around sinks and washbasins. Due to their relatively high cost, this feature is very rare in Old City dwellings and, where present, ceramic tiles only cover limited areas. Tiles are generally placed directly against the second plaster layer in walls. It is worth noting in this context, that ceramic tiles are considered a must in bathrooms and kitchens of new buildings and most old dwellings outside the City walls.

Stonework

Stonework operations are the fourth most frequently performed by maintenance and restoration teams in the Old City. Detailed discussion of such operations shall be included later in the archaeological restoration section. Around 95% of buildings in the West Bank are faced with stone blocks. In the Old City, new construction is very rare and stonework operations are more or less restricted to the replacement of weathered or deteriorated stones.

Metalwork and carpentry (doors, windows and window grilles)

It is very rare for homeowners to resort to the repair and/or maintenance of old doors or windows. In general, they opt for their replacement by new items. Today, the majority of tenants prefer the use of steel windows with steel grilles and door. Interior doors are usually chosen from timber or lightweight steel. Simple steel doors consisting of a single continuous 1mm thick metal sheet, reinforced by a steel angle section frame, and a diagonal double-angle section of the interior surface, is by far the most popular and economic choice. Better off homeowners tend to prefer the more expensive and durable metal profiles that are filled with extra interior reinforcement, and are commonly decorated with set patterns. The same applies to timber doors that are basically assembled from two 5 mm planks separated by 3 cm of cavity, and held together by intermittent, internally fixed bars.

As for windows, 90% of those newly installed are steel angle frames, with simple old-fashioned handles and plain glass. The remaining 10% are aluminum and timber. Outside the Old City, most new buildings install double glazing aluminum windows with silver, dark brown or white sections. The use of timber windows is growing less with time.

Electrical connections and installations

It is typical for homeowners to replace their electrical wiring during wall plastering repairs. In comparison with modern or new construction, electrical installations, those of the Old City, are extremely primitive. Even light fixtures are restricted to single regular bulbs or fluorescent lamps. It should be remembered that the dampness inside the walls and ceilings has its own severe effect on the life of wiring, making its frequent replacement a necessity. It is also worth noting that safety standards, in regards to electrical installations, are appalling, and accidents occur on daily basis in one home or another as a result of either excessive dampness or faulty wiring. Again, automatic and semi-automatic safety switches installed in new buildings are rare in Old City homes.

Plumbing (sewage disposal and sanitary installations)

Homeowners are usually encouraged to carry out plumbing projects during the execution of plaster and floor tile replacement operations. In regards to plumbing (water lines), work procedure is generally similar to new construction, except that tenants of Old City homes rarely install electric boilders, and are content with small-scale gas heating. Few homeowners (though more nowdays) have invested in solar heating. As for sewage disposal, most residents continue to rely on sedimentation pits. All new sewage lines are generally connected to City networks by the local authority and shall be touched upon in more detail at a later stage.

In terms of sanitary installations, homeowners in the Old City only recently started imitating their counterparts outside the City walls, with ceramic bathrooms, showers, sinks, washbasins and toilets. Such modern installations are however not very popular due to their high cost and their unsuitability in the restricted spaces of Old City homes. The use of white Romanian or locally-manufactured, plastic, stainless steel, or ceramic utensils is more widespread. Modern toilets are not very common; the traditional Moslem residents are still using the so-called "Arabic toilet", a simple ceramic base fixed to the ground, with an opening connected to the local sewage system.

Central heating installations do not exist in Moslem Quarter homes.

Wall paint (emulsion, oil and lime)

Over 30% of Old City homes do not bother with wall paint for economic considerations. Such negligence is excused by the fact that dampness does not allow wall paint to remain in reasonable condition for long. Those residents who attempt to maintain presentable homes apply new wall and ceiling paint annually. Wall paint is usually applied in three layers, preceded by another layer of paste on non-uniform surfaces. As in new c, paint is chosen from one of three available mixtures: diluted lime mix, typically used for ceilings and the most economic; emulsion paint, mostly used for walls; and oil paint also used for walls (up to 1.5 m height).

Brickwork

Hollow cement blocks are widely used in new construction as well as in maintenance operations. In the latter, in addition to the use of bricks in plastering, it had been very common in humid environments to erect substitute walls at approximately 5 cm away from the original wall plane.

As for new construction, bricks are widely used in the Old City as an alternative for the more usual stone/concrete. This preference is also based on practical considerations: bricks are easily obtainable and can be built at a much faster rate. Their light weight is also of great benefit, especially when new construction is erected on existing structures where columns and foundations could be done without. Most important of all is the fact that new brickwork construction does not require a building permit by the local authority as does concrete. Residents use this loophole in regulations to the full for creating much needed additional living space with the minimum of bother.

Asbestos roofing

A similar argument as in the use of brickwork in new construction applies to asbestos which is very widely used in roofing of uncovered areas. The use of thin corrugulated planks, one metre wide and various lengths, had become very popular for roofing in and out of the Old City. Many homeowners in the City were tempted to use the cheap, easy to install asbestos for covering exposed inner yards and external extensions for more space. Asbestos planks are generally fixed directly on bricks or steel trusses. Again, its installation does not require an authority permit, which explains its increasing popularity. The light weight and relative durability of the material is also advantageous.

Roof asphalting - waterproofing

Many homeowners who became fed up with leaky roofs and could not afford basic treatment were encouraged to apply a film of hot asphalt, which possesses water resistant properties, in two stages to roof surfaces. An intermediate layer of fiberglass sheeting is very commonly used for additional efficiency in regards to moisture absorption and asphalt fixity. The same process is also popular in new construction with flat concrete surfaces. It had proved to be reasonably efficient if no accumulation of water is allowed at any one point on the roof. The better off homeowners precede the asphalt film by a perfectly sloping smooth concrete surface which invites water to accumulate at a predetermined point with an external drainage outlet. Sand, emulsion paint, or white fine aggregate are literally sprayed into the asphalt surface to avoid problems associated with melting of the latter in hot weather. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that despite its benefits, the asphalt surface distorts the image and general style of the City's structures, especially when applied directly into the old roof of domes, and flat surfaces.

Archaeological Restoration

the Centre for Maintenance and Restoration of Archaeological Structures - CMR

The CMR, which is partly affiliated with the Administration of Waqf and Islamic Affairs, is the only existing professional body specialized in this field in Palestine. Few current owners of ancient Islamic buildings perform limited repairs. Such operations are generally supervised and executed solely by the CMR. The Centre was established in 1984, and currently has two qualified archaeologists, an architect, and an assistant structural engineer.

In addition to their own research facilities and resources, CMR personnel enjoy direct access to all the facilities of the Islamic Archaeology Department, including a photography laboratory and the trained foremen and draughtsmen in the Department. No less than thirty skilled and unskilled labourers are also employed by the CMR on a daily basis. Restoration operations performed by the CMR are concentrated on structures of Mamluk origin. Until the second half of 1988, work has either been completed or is currently in progress on a dozen or so buildings in various locations all over the City.

Restoration operations in the Old City shall be discussed in detail below as planned and executed by the CMR, whose role as the executive arm of the Archaeology Department gave it unrivalled authority.

Appraisal: General approach

Prior to the execution stage, restoration teams prepare preliminary studies on the structure/s in question. The appraisal stage, following the exact identification of the site, proceeds as follows. Firstly, a thorough historical-archaeological study based on available literature, field trips and any other sources of information, is presented in report form, including all relevant aspects of architecture and present (and past) usage of the property under study.

Secondly, field work commences with surveyors and technical draughtsmen aided by a professional photographer according to set instructions by the design-supervision team of archaeologists, architect and engineer. Thirdly, drawing office work commences, at the end of which a whole set of detailed drawings are produced. In addition to the usual plans, elevations and sections, detailed drawings are produced for every element to be worked on.

The final step, before actual restoration work begins, involves the setting out of a work plan and budget. The latter, after being prepared by the design team, is submitted for approval to the financial committee in charge of the CMR's activities. In accordance with the size and conditions of allocated funds, a project budget is then prepared in its final form, with each planned stage of construction treated independently.

Strategy and work procedure

The nature of restoration operations differs from regular maintenance work in the Old City in many respects. On the whole, experts estimate that 40% of the total amount of work carried out in buildings and other structures of archaeological significance, are similar in nature to structural/architectural operations discussed in the two previous sections. In order to avoid repetition, only the other 60% shall be analysed in detail in the following section.

Restoration work strategy is generally based on the need to replace unfit components by more suitable substitutes which are as close as possible to original forms of the components in question. Style, type of material and physical condition (extent of erosion for instance) are some of the most influential issues that decide on the definitions of such terms as "unfit" and "more suitable". Many structures require only the minimum of repairs such as the replacement of kuhla, plastering or cleaning accumulated dirt on wall or floor profiles, while others demand much greater attention, skill and knowledge. Complex technical and other operations make restoration work in the Old City more challenging than similar work in other parts of the world. Vanished writings and decorations, totally deteriorated members and unfriendly tenants of some structures are only few of the numerous issues that continue to hinder restoration teams' efforts to recapture authentic features.

One last and extremely important reminder is the fact that despite the destruction and neglect that historical buildings have suffered in the past, they continue to exhibit a remarkable degree of preservation. This should be constantly assessed and examined by restoration teams whose slightest errors, both in planning and execution, might deny a structure its intrinsic historical value, which it has for so long managed to preserve.

Stonework

Most restoration work in the Old City is related in some ways to stonework. This is not surprising when one is dealing with Mamluk structures which have gained worldwide recognition for their rich use of splendid and highly artistic stone construction. The extent of care restoration teams dedicate to stone profiles is shown by the fact that blocks of stone are treated individually, each having its own set of drawings or photographs as required bstonelayers and carvers. In all operations that have been completed, or recently started, work procedure has followed a more or less similar pattern. Initially, large, manually handled and cut to size blocks of stone are purchased from local quarries and transported to site where they are classified and labelled according to working drawings. Specialized carvers then commence their careful artistic work on individual blocks as required. In the meantime, other craftsmen, also stone builders, are assigned to removing deteriorated blocks that are to be replaced by substitutes.

In some cases, individual blocks are replaced in position, one at a time, in others, complete profiles are dismantled and reconstructed gradually in sets. The process of fixing new stone moulds differs greatly from one location to another, especially in relation to structural requirements and when dealing with very large blocks weighing in excess of 100 kg. The use of extensive scaffolding is common in all dismantling and reconstruction operations when stone profiles were restored. Special attention was also paid to the use of the best mixes of concrete and bonding mortars.

According to experienced craftsmen, the strong bonding that existed between adjacent blocks, no matter how eroded, was astonishing. It had proved to be extremely difficult to separate unfit blocks, and even more difficult to achieve a similar standard of bonding with their new replacements. One of the trickiest and most sophisticated operations that involved stonework restoration was the "marathon" at Al-Madrassa Al-Ashrafiyya on the Haram's western border. After months of restoration work inside the Madrassa compound, currently a girl's religious school managed by the AWIA, the team of technicians and builders moved to the main entrance portal. The porch opens through two pointed arches to east and south. Both are constructed of similarly patterned, red and cream coloured Ablaq voussoirs, enclosed by an irregularly shaped moulding. The vaulted slab is an elaborate form of folded cross vault, with alternate courses of red-painted lines some of which have been replaced at a later stage.

Initially, a scaffold was erected directly beneath the main vault whose blocks were to be substituted. Work then started on dismantling the blocks of the south-eastern vault side. Apart from the difficulty of cutting individual blocks to shape, the main concern, from a structural point of view, was the reconstruction process which started from the lowest point in each side. The trickiest part was to ensure the temporary and permanent stability of successively fixed blocks.

Upon the advice of the experienced stone layer, individual adjacent blocks were literally fitted into each other according to pre-cut forms in the vault-arch plane, with concrete-stone chips mixture used for bonding into the upper slab thickness. The use of the latter was adopted for improved concrete bonding and hardening. Steel tie-bars were fixed into pre-set holes for extra strength and fixity between adjacent blocks. The operation was then temporarily halted for economic difficulties, with one arch only being completed. Of all operations so far completed in the Old City, it is estimated that over 90% of stonework restoration involved moulds of different shapes and patterns; the remaining 10% involving the re-creation of old inscriptions. In the case of the latter, stone carvers had on occasions to work on fixed in-profile blocks at 2m-plus elevations, thus needing scaffolding for the whole duration of carving, instead of the more comfortable and controllable process with individual blocks on ground level.

In summary, the mere restoration or replacement of a particular mould or stone-plate inscription requires a lengthy highly sensitive process that demands the combined efforts of skilled craftsmen and expert technicians for its successful realisation. In addition to preliminary efforts by draughtsmen, photographers, architects and archaeologists, the physical execution of work demands the best skilled of builders and complimentary labour.

Rock types

As for rock types, it is almost impossible to obtain exactly identical stone types to the originals. It would be difficult to determine the exact origins in the first place except when certain red, black or other distinctive types were used. The most popular sites where rock deposits are obtained include: Alsulayyeb, just north of Bethlehem, known for its red-coloured deposits; Tiberias, in the north, close to the Syrian border, known for its black rock deposits; Hebron and surrounding villages, known for their yellowish-white samples; and Nablus and the North, known for their white deposits which are harder and less permeable to water than Hebron rock.

Natural properties of typically used rock deposits vary between the very hard, impermeable, and insusceptible to changes in colouring at one end (stone from Qabatia near Nablus) and the soft, permeable deposits (Yatta near Hebron). Some samples are pure white while others have coloured threads (yellow and red) which become more dominant as the sample is subjected to water. Choices of rock to be used in a particular site depend on the purpose of use, workability, compatibility with the surroundings, relative costs and market availability, amongst other factors.

It was noticeable in some locations that mixed stone types were present prior to any restoration, which implied faulty restoration or maintenance at an earlier period. Today's teams have been taking great care to avoid such practices, and when necessary, or possible, to dispose of such unwanted members. On some occasions, it was decided that existing items should be restored rather than replaced. Such operations demanded the same skills and care as replacement of individual specimens, especially when dealing with decorated blocks and moulds of various shapes. The same sequence of drawing, photographing, etc. is followed except that the item to be restored is treated in position.

Where only minor, superficial damage was evident, it was customary to carry out surface treatment only without altering the basic existing forms. In such cases, stone profiles were cleaned by steel brushes and then applying kuhla as usual. When very sticky dirt was met, hammers and nails were used carefully for the cleaning process. Also in the stone cleaning treatment is the uprooting of plant growth and vegetation.

When very fine, slightly eroded samples were met, rugged treatment was avoided to prevent crumbling. Even cleaning was restricted to soft brush or hand operations.

Roof and floor tiles

In general terms, adopted procedures of restoration of roof and floor tiles in Mamluk structures in the Old City were dependent on the desires of respective supervisors rather than other issues. It has been customary for the balance to shift towards the archaeologist's wishes which more often than not involved the re-use of old tiles. Architects and engineers on the other hand, generally preferred the use of new substitutes, so long as they were durable and nicely shaped. Tile restoration operations carried out by the CMR in the Old City followed one of four procedures: re-fitting original tiles, by far the most popular technique, which generally followed the pouring of a new concrete surface as discussed before; placing new stone tiles of various rectangular dimensions on a soft sand layer; kuhla application, when only minor damages and limited deterioration were observed; or uncovering hidden surfaces: on one or two occasions, where old stone-tiled surfaces were completely covered with new tiles or concrete surfaces, the latter were removed to reveal the older, original surfaces, which were then cleaned and treated with kuhla as required.

Adopted procedures

Some of the factors that influenced the choice of different alternatives included: extent of deterioration of existing material, archaeological considerations, future use of surfaces, cost restraints, limited supply, desires of current occupants, and architectural considerations.

Ideally, the only solution that is certain to satisfy the desires of archa, architects and engineers would be the re-application of the same tiles after providing sufficient subgrade strength and kuhla to the final tile surface. This process is, however, costly in comparison with other alternatives, and current occupants are certain to prefer the application of new, modern mosaic tiling. In other incidents, where heavy traffic was expected, engineers insisted on using new strong, stone tiles, which architects rarely minded. Again, opposition came from economic and archaeological considerations. Ultimately, the procedure is usually chosen after weighing the alternatives in relation to compatibility with local surroundings. It is admitted that on some occasions, certain steps were followed just because they were the least troublesome to supervisors of work at the time.

Other operations

Doors

During the last few years, the CMR restored or re-constructed only a handful of old doors in Mamluk structures in the Old City. Even though the City boasts a large number of highly skilled blacksmiths and carpenters, the quality of restored items (metal and timber doors) was in most cases inferior to the originals, especially in relation to detail and durability.

So far, none of the beautifully decorated gates that protected the old madrassas and ribats of the Old City has been perfectly restored or re-constructed. One particular case that stands out in the CMR's short record was the restoration of the main entrance gate to the Turba Alkilaniyya in Bab Alsilsileh road. The ancient weathered gate was reconstructed very skillfully using some of the suitable original components in addition to necessary additions. In other locations, less emphasis was placed on the restoration of doors and usually modern equivalents were used instead. Work supervisors defend their actions by pointing out that at the majority of sites, original items were completely eroded so that few traces were evident, thus ruling out the possibility of restoration or repair of existing items. Exact imitations were also vetoed for economic considerations, or for their lack of originality since they would always look like imitations. The general strategy of restoration of doors was based on either repairing existing items with minor, secondary additions where needed, or installing completely new items where no traces were evident of the originals.

Windows and window grilles

Ancient original windows of Old City buildings were mostly manufactured from plain timber or timber/gypsum combinations, with rectangular grilles of steel bars usually only in ground floors. In regards to shape and layout, windows were generally rich with their decorative, well-defined patterns. In all of the well-known historical/religious structures, windows were laid out in symmetrical patterns and groups.

Sizes and shapes varied according to floor position, and use of respective buildings. Windows in public buildings were generally larger than residential ones while upper floors always enjoyed wider openings. It was only possible to design and manufacture new identical items as opposed to repairing existing ones, especially because original elements were very rare. Exact descriptions of techniques and material used in door and window restoration work shall be included in the Case study section of this chapter.

Restoration of original features

This process shall be described in relation to case studies and real life operations. Numerous examples exist of this phenomenon where either additions were removed or altered features were restored to their original forms. Hidden features at some locations were also revealed and repaired as required.

Obstacles and limitations

Restoration operations performed under the direction or supervision of CMR staff in the Old City have been highly acclaimed by local as well as international bodies for the high quality, creativity and originality of execution. Nevertheless, as the current teams of restoration experts admit, there is plenty of scope for improvement as far as the overall standard of operations is concerned. Tremendous progress is certain to be achieved if any one or all of the following obstacles were overcome.

Funding

Limited and inconsistent provision of funds had been the most serious drawback facing the development and progress of restoration work in the Old City. The foremost setback was the inability to design and act upon long term wide scale plans, forcing operators to adopt a policy of stages and neglect the need for continuity required in such work.

Because understaffed, CMR had not been able to operate a full research facility; instead, its specialised personnel were forced to carry out an assortment of duties other than their own. The archaeology expert for instance was expected to register daily labour attendance and payment records, in addition to his more normal duties in historical research and site investigations. A much needed change of strategy and priorities with more staff being brought in and greater attention being allocated towards theoretical and field research is certain to produce the most favourable results in regards to the overall quality and standard of operations.

Insufficient allocation of funds to restoration projects had prevented on many occasions the adoption of ideal techniques in favour of incompatible, less costly options. Successive cutbacks in the CMR's budget cost the departure of a number of highly skilled specialized craftsmen who refused to accept the reduced wages. At certain locations, the shortage in funding forced resort to surface treatment, such as the use of stone surface cover as opposed to the replacement of the complete thickness of eroded blocks.

Technical difficulties

Deficiency in experienced personnel

Despite the CMR's hard-working team of supervisors, the majority of staff lack the desired combination of academic and field education that are essential in this line of work. Greater attention must be placed on providing training opportunities for its staff, by inviting more experienced technical staff to assist in passing on their skills and know-how as well as joining efforts for the enhanced development and progress of operations. The criticism is not aimed at undermining the CMR's technical abilities, but at their improvement.

Determining authenticity

One of the commonest technical obstacles facing restoration experts was the determination of authentic boundaries or building material in a particular structure. Their tasks was made more challenging by the fact that many buildings have been subjected to numerous modifications along the years. In 300-plus year-old structures, the distinction between stone blocks placed 100 years apart could not be considered a straightforward task.

A noticeable factor that contributed to the complexity of work was the faulty maintenance that was performed at many locations. In some Mamluk structures, the use of non-conforming building material by Ottoman maintenance operators only added to such complications in identifying original Mamluk components.

Building material

Strong claims made by structural conservation enthusiasts are best supported by the fact that it would be physically impossible to replace deteriorated components by exactly identical substitutes. Especially with older structures or those composed of imported building material, the difficulty of determining the nature and origin of used material is only exceeded by the difficulty of finding identical or suitable replacements.

The other obstacle facing restoration teams in regards to building material is the nature of operations on one hand and the natural properties of material on the other. A distinctive example is the production of complex moulded patterns and shapes from the brittle stone.

Skilled labour

Old City restoration work demands high levels of skill by labourers and craftsmen to enable the reproduction of extremely complex and highly artistic creations of their skilled predecessors. Hundreds of years after many of the City's structures were first built, and keeping in mind the development of the construction industry during the same period, it is surprising that the required skills demanded by restoration operations are not easy to come by nowadays.

Able and experienced craftsmen are very rare, and when available, they are very expensive. It is not surprising that in other parts of the world, where structural or architectural restoration is common, special institutions for skilled labour training are found. In addition to the required basic skills, labourers have to be able to operate under the most severe and uncomfortable circumstances such as narrow space and high altitudes with scandalously inadequate safety precautions.

Current use of buildings and absence of authority

With reference to the earlier section, CMR personnel explain that one of the most serious limitations to their work is the current use of historically significant structures in the Old City. Approximately 95% of madrassas, ribats, khanquas, etc. which were originally founded for public use are at present occupied by ordinary citizens who could not afford to live elsewhere. Numerous additions or alterations introduced by successive landlords have changed the original style of such buildings. Even when tempted with large scale maintenance to their dwellings in return, very few residents of historical structures responded positively to requests for the elimination of additions or alterations as required by restoration operations.

It would suffice to conclude that the absence of any responsible, conscientious legal authority which would have considered such options as allocating alternative residence, or paying out reasonable compensations to evicted residents, contributed enormously to the current state of affairs.

Cost of operations

In comparison with regular maintenance work in the Old City or even in new construction, restoration operations are very costly. The great emphasis placed on quality and standard of work accounts largely for the escalated costs. The nature of operations, which demands the use of specific building techniques, accounts for the slow productivity rate and, thus, the inflated expenditure. In contrast to maintenance operations, where mostly structural considerations only are of value, restoration work takes into account historical and architectural issues in addition to the basic structural requirements.

Case study - Al Turba Al Kilaniyya

The Turba compound is situated on the northern side of Bab Alsilsileh road, immediately to the west of the Taziyya. The choice of Alkilaniyya as the case study was for the one reason that its restoration was the most complete so far in the Old City. It was the largest single stage operation of that nature, wholly executed by the CMR. The $85,000 project, which consumed the better part of two years for completion includes typical representation of almost all of the previously touched upon restoration operations. Typical restraints and obstacles were also faced by the restoration team.

Introductory Notes

Structure and brief history

The Turba complex is surrounded by older structures from all sides except for that of the street. Despite the clear evidence of domestic modifications in the structure's interior layout, one could still identify its three main parts: two domed tomb chambers and the intermediate, also domed, vestibule and entrance portal; ground floor open courtyard; and the two-storey structure in the north western corner of the compound.

According to Mujir al-din, the Kilaniyya was named after the Hajj Jamal al-din Pahlavan, son of the Lord of Kilan, who instructed his son to allocate funds for the construction of a mausoleum in Jerusalem for his burial. The year 1352 A.D. is agreed on as the year in which actual construction was started. The only relevant information about the Turba during Ottoman times was the execution of necessary repairs to the structure in the year 1575.

Architecture

The splendid architecture of the street facade is represented by the symmetrical arrangement of the two chambers on either side of the main entrance portal; the continuous frame moulding; and the muquarnas semidome, also of the same portal. Windows on both floor levels have been decorated richly, with a pattern of curves and darts for the ground floor and a muquaranas-headed recess for the upper floor. Three domes rise above the facade, with the one at the centre rising at least one metre above the other two. The central and eastern domes rest on octagonal drums pierced by eight windows whereas the western dome is sixteen sided and has eight round headed windows.

Restoration process

At present, the compound is wholly occupied by the Da'na family who lived in the Waqf Zurri (Ansari family) building for many decades. Originally Hebronite, the family came to the Holy City in the early thirties and most of its surviving members were born in the Kilaniyya compound. The western tomb chamber, the whole ground floor, and the north western two storey structure, are occupied by members of the largest of the three Da'na families living in the compound. The other two share the second and third stories of the south western section respectively.

Actual restoration work did not start before the completion of an extensive study and detailed documentation process. Once the prepared project budget was approved, negotiations with the residents commenced. In short, their condition for approving the proposed repairs and modifications was to guarantee the execution of full scale structural and architectural maintenance to their respective dwellings, which had exhibited serious deterioration in all areas. The first serious disagreement between the residents and CMR staff was in relation to the latter's insistance that a cantilevered timber balcony added to the second floor should be dismantled; and the transfer of a small kitchen and bathroom facility on the roof to another location away from the street side. The asbestos mini-structure was only a few years ago irregularly squeezed between the three domes on the roof of the compound. Eventually, after appreciable efforts by outsiders, the residents gave in to CMR demands on both.

Stonework: the street facade

First on the agenda was the main street facade which exhibited severe erosion. After a thorough inspection, it was decided that between 10-20% of all the facade's blocks should be replaced. With the assistance of pre-set drawings for individual blocks, an order sheet was prepared for exact dimensions of all samples to be imported. A scaffold was then set up, and workers started cleaning plants and accumulated dirt off the stone profile. Special care was taken to avoid further damage to the already instable upper third of the wall's height. Similar care was taken while removing individual blocks of stone to be replaced or rebuilt. Old, deeply entrenched plant roots were treated with chemicals to ensure their destruction.

In places where relatively thick sections (in excess of 50 cm) were met, it was thought enough to substitute only part of the total thickness so as not to jeopardise the wall's stability on one hand, and to save in costs on the other. In most cases, it was decided to peel off a 20-30 cm chunk, then place a concrete/lime mix, followed by fixing the prepared stone replacement in place. Lime was used for extra hardening, compatibility with stone and allowing moisture to seep out through the kuhla lines. After few months of work, the team of six craftsmen completed the restoration of the whole street facade including the cornice frames around ground floor windows (the tomb chambers), the muquarnas entrance portal, the semi-domed muquarnas of the top central window, damaged window lintels as well as a scattered selection of eroded blocks.

As for the muquarnas treatment, the majority of stalactite pieces were merely cleaned, with only a handful being partly replaced. Added parts were glued on to the bulkier, fixed blocks. The top parapet patterns were also repositioned in a more acceptable form, closer to the original. On completion, the street facade included a selection of new blocks, with older ones, either partly eroded or in reasonably good condition. The unharmonious sight of mixed colours , however, certain to become more compatible with time, as the new, whiter blocks become exposed to the local atmospheric conditions.

The Tomb Chambers

The western tomb chamber, which did not include any tombs, was wholly replastered, retiled with the same tiles and received new white kuhla in exposed stone zones which did not receive any plaster. The eastern tomb chamber had its interior stones restored in the usual method, and the tomb itself was completely reshaped and faced with new stone. The only criticism due in this context was the restoration team's negligence of the original shape of the tomb, three overlapping domes, and substituting them with an ordinary, easier to construct rectangular shape.

The re-creation of the external steps leading up to the two chambers, the installation of doors, windows, and grilles were common to the chambers on either side of the entrance. The timber doors were decorated with horizontal copper bands, in a form close to the original. Windows were also of timber, with continuous surface shutters that were interrupted at the top with two small swinging windows (also as in the original structure). Finally, the iron grilles were partly repaired and partly replaced and fixed into the stone window frames. Two concrete slabs, constructed at an earlier stage (Ottoman) at different levels, and in both tomb chambers, were demolished, with their joining lines at the walls being repaired as required.

In addition, the main street gate was restored in a very satisfactory and relatively low-cost operation which made use of all available items in the original door. The double-leafed green door was manufactured from interior timber stuffing, with external steel sheets on both sides. A continuous steel angle section frame was installed around the whole perimeter for fixing the heavy door. The old, varnished exterior decoration was also restored to an extent.

Domes

The three main domes facing the street side were next for restoration treatment. All three segmental arched domes had their tiles removed followed by the application of a solid concrete mix layer, before the same old stone tiles were re-placed as before. Kuhla was applied to the whole surface as usual. In the eastern dome, a double pattern of groups of openings were poured from gypsum, concrete and crooked steel reinforcement, using circular moulds to cover the dome surface.

In regards to the domes' tile surface, the almost perfect final product was primarily achieved through the superior skills of the specialized layers and kuhla operatives. Their concentrated efforts made easy the exact re-application of the small eroded stone tiles on the almost vertical sides.

Other operations

Other more typical operations that were performed in the Turba structure at the same time included the placing of new reinforced concrete slabs, rough stucco wall plastering, retiling and modern style timber doors and windows to the majority of rooms on both storeys. Basic sanitary, plumbing and electrical installations were also supplied. Finally, a completely new sewage system was installed and connected to the public network recently provided in the area. The plumbing work during the installation process was particularly costly and laborious, largely due to the bad state of the whole compound, the unfavourable locations of sanitary fittings and the below street level elevation of the ground floor.

Throughout the 18-month duration of the job, at least six labourers (both skilled and unskilled) were working on site. One third of the total expenditure was on material, the remaining two thirds, labour. It is worth noting that upon the persistent requests of the ground floor residents, the committee for Waqf Zurri had undertaken the replacement of most of the floor area stone tiles by new mosaic ones. Plastering defects were also repaired in parts in addition to steel doors and grilles to all openings facing the inner yard.

Town Planning and Public Services

Jerusalem Municipality is the only local body with effective authority and executive power over public affairs in the region. Despite the Arab population's official non-recognition of its legality with respect to East Jerusalem, every Arab resident has had to deal directly or otherwise with one of its legal or service departments at some time during the occupation.

Due to its symbolic significance and commerical value, especially in relation to tourism, the Old City has continued to receive the lion's share of attention to the Arab areas in the City of Jerusalem. In particular during the last decade or so, the local authority had completed a number of large scale projects within the Old City's perimeter aimed at improving public facilities and services in the area. The Arab residents of the City in particular, and Palestinians worldwide, acknowledge gratefully the authority's contributions in such fields as the beautification of the City, but on the other hand pause to question its real intentions. The relatively brief account of some of the more significant improvements introduced by the Israeli local authority in the Old City of Jerusalem shall be divided into two categories: urban planning and public services.

The reader should keep in mind the multi-million dollar operation recently completed in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City. The East Jerusalem Development Company (EJDC), which co-financed the whole project, continues to provide all forms of assistance to Old City Jewish residents who wish to purchase Moslem owned property in the City and to renovation of such property.

Urban planning: structural maintenance and architecture

Jerusalem Municipality is credited with a number of major projects in and around the Old City perimeter. Most noticeable are the landscaping projects aimed at improving and modernising the City's image, largely for the benefit of tourism. Adventurous designs involving the re-organisation of the layouts of popular locations are carefully planned to combine an allowance for practical demands as well as a well-balanced mixture of modern and ancient architecture.

Shortly after the war in 1967, the local authority started the first of its planned facelifts just outside the Old City walls. Such projects have continued and are still in progress in some parts. Those completed operations include Damascus Gate, Herod's Gate and the strip running parallel with the wall joining Jaffa Gate, the New Gate, Damascus Gate and Herod's Gate. Two other projects of similar nature, but yet to be completed, include the strip at the Moslem cemetrey at St. Stephens Gate and the narrow square just inside New Gate. The last of such projects is the St. Stephens Gate/Alghazali Square plaza. Complex administrative and financial factors have contributed to its delayed completion.

As for structural maintenance, the local authority is also credited with several projects at various locations throughout the Moslem Quarter of the City. All operations involved the provision of support to unsafe structures, even those privately owned by Arabs. The scale of such activities has, however, been very limited, as the recipients of such aid were expected to pay.

Landscaping and Architecture

Bab Alamoud: Damascus Gate

Many years back, Damascus Gate was one of Jerusalem's busiest and most popular crossing points. Thousands of years later, the same gate is still the most used of the City's gates, aided by the fact that the central East Jerusalem bus station and taxi terminals are only a few yards away. In addition, the City Centre, including all shopping facilities in and out of the walls, are within walking distance.

Any plan aimed at improving the scenery or landscaping in the region has to allow for the urgent need to accommodate comfortably the pedestrian traffic congestion. The plan ultimately adopted was extremely effective in space utilization on either side of the Gate. The abundant space between the Wall and the nearby street was perfectly exploited to accommodate the huge crowds crossing the gate, by inviting them to scatter through a divergent semi-circular stairs and seat arrangement. Stone tiles were used for paviwhile different sized cubic stone blocks were utilized as seating platforms by tourists and local unemployed youth who watch the multi-national assortment of pedestrians passing by.

On either side of the four main stairflights, the space is occupied by stalls of fruit, clothes and other common goods. The same applies to the stairs leading into the Old City, which are even more heavily congested by such market stalls, money changers and sweets salesmen. A few yards into the gate, modern shops and street cafes attract tourists and locals alike. The whole sector on the street's western side, previously neglected, was re-opened and renovated completely to accommodate additional shopping and rest space.

Herod's Gate: Bab Alsahira

A similar, but certainly less spectacular arrangement was completed at the main square just outside Herod's Gate. The project was particularly successful in solving the previous traffic problem caused by its use as a taxi terminal in addition to a public car park. Instead, a very pleasant, spacious, newly paved square stands in its place today.

Seating platforms, also of stone, were lined along the wall perimeter to complete the layout which served a double purpose, beautifying the area on one hand, and ridding it of the previous dirt accumulating corners on either side of the gate, on the other.

Lion's Gate: Bab Alasbat or St. Stephen's Gate

Two independent projects were planned for the area just inside the Gate, while the small car park on the outside was paved with new stone tiles. Two short pyramids were erected on either side of the gate, using cubic stone blocks.

As far as the first project was concerned, approximately 100 metres away from the gate along the Via Dolorosa, a yellowish-white stone platform was erected in the early eighties by the EJDC to symbolise the second temple period. The elevated platform was stepped to meet the street level throughout its length. An arrangement of four pairs of vertical stone pillars, approximately two metres high, was erected nearer to the street side. The platform, eight by 40 metres, is reached by six steps from the eastern end, and two from the western end.

The elegant mini-plaza is very popular with tourists and postcard boys who make the most of its comfortable stone seats and surrounding flowers beds. A self-explanatory tourist map, mounted on a short pillar structure, provides an additional attraction for the eager tourists.

As for the second St. Stephens Gate project, the job initially planned has yet to be completed; the bulk of stonework operations has however been successfully executed. This extensive project should not be wholly credited to the Israeli authority since the AWIA (Administration of Waqf and Islamic Affairs) was in charge of supervision as well as financing of construction. The former's contribution to the project was its design and co-supervision. Despite its undeniable benefits, mostly in regards to public cleanliness, the new-look, spacious plaza and adjacent square were largely rejected by the locals as well as the AWIA technical and administrative staff. Locals' rejection was based on the hardship they were caused by the demolition of the UNRWA facility previously distributing in the location monthly food and fuel rations. The authority had earlier made it clear that in the event of the landowner (the AWIA) refusing to cooperate with the plan, the former would take it upon itself to bring the new arrangement into existence by force of law. Residents and nearby business owners were also dissatisfied with the abolition of the free parking space previously available in the area.

As for the AWIA, its opposition to the authority's proposal was that the new arrangement was too modern and non-Islamic for its liking. AWIA architects' prolonged discussions and arguments with their City counterparts resulted in a final format which was accepted by both sides. Unfortunately, the construction process was interrupted on many occasions. The new layout, which covers a total area of almost one and a half donums, is composed of large stone seating arrangements and flower beds at various elevations. The eastern strip running parallel to the Old City wall, the pedestrian passage joining the Haram and the City gates, has been completely re-tiled using reddish/white stones.

The western side of the site was confined by a new double faced stone wall to separate it from the waste disposal dump on the other side. A triple bay, circular stone flower bed arrangement has been completed in the south western corner of the seating plaza while the remaining space consisted largely of scattered patterns of cubic shapes to serve as seating platforms. A five metre wide passage diagonally intercepted the seating area to allow emergency vehicles to reach the Haram gate.

According to AWIA and municipality personnel, the final layout when completed shall include adequate lighting fixtures, street lanterns and ground projectors. The total cost of the project is expected to reach $150,000.

Jaffa Gate-New Gate strip

The strategic dividing line between East and West Jerusalem occupied top priority in the authority's agenda in regards to town planning projects. Only months after the annexation of East Jerusalem, the Municipality commenced the execution of a twofold plan aimed at improving the unattractive landscaping as well as emphasising the re-unification of the City of Jerusalem by creating a flowing uninterrupted new look at the dividing line. In addition to a collection of beautifully arranged gardens, public squares and parks, the whole length of strip was paved with new stone tiles. Light projectors, hand rails and other minor installations were also part of the new-look scenery.

Wall strip

Identical arrangements to the preceding location were also completed in all the strips running parallel to the City walls, and joining New Gate, Damascus Gate and Herod's Gate up to the Moslem cemetery at St. Stephens Gate. The long strip was completely re-paved, again with stone tiles, in addition to an adequate number of scattered seats (also of stone) at frequent intervals.

Moslem cemetery at Bab Alasbat (Lions Gate)

A whole segment of the Cemetery's east-south perimeter was re-organised creating additional space for the busy road following the same direction. A new high wall was rebuilt at the Cemetery's new boundary, using old stone blocks from nearby sites. A wide pedestrian pavement was also constructed using dark brown/reddish cement tiles.

Pavements inside the Old City

As was reported earlier, the Old City streets and alleys were unfit for pedestrian use. Since the early seventies, the local authority had launched an ambitious long term plan to restore eroded pavements throughout the City. Main roads that accommodated vehicle traffic such as Via Dolorosa and Alwad were first in line to receive the new pavements, as were popular tourist locations. White limestone tiles were the most frequently used.

Similar operations in progress include the densely populated Bab Hutta neighbourhood in the north eastern sector of the City. Earlier, work was completed in Bab Alsilsileh road and in limited areas in Harat Alssadiyya. New sewage system installations generally determined the course of paving operations inside the City.

Unfortunately, the recently installed tiles, which were primarily aimed at reducing pedestrian discomfort, did not serve that purpose for very long. At almost all of the newly paved areas, defects in tiling workmanship soon became evident causing local settlement in some zones, and single tile displacement in others. As it turned out, no street is free from rainwater accumulation in ditches in winter and no surface is uniform enough for pedestrian comfort. All such defects are partly blamed on the poor quality of workmanship and the weak subgrade layer underlying the new tiles. In limited areas where subsurface reinforced concrete slabs were placed, more favourable results were achieved.

Structural Maintenance

Jerusalem Municipality, similar to other local authorities worldwide, boasts its own Unsafe Structures division, with a specialised team exclusin charge of Old City operations. The assigned engineer and technicians are instructed to conduct routine inspection tours inside the Old City. Their duties include the identification of unsafe structures, notification of owners and at times supervising the execution of remedial work.

Since the mid-seventies and until the early eighties, the unit was very actively involved in structural repair operations throughout the City; their role was gradually diminished in recent years with the AWIA's more active involvement in that department, particularly in the Moslem Quarter of Jerusalem. It could be said that the unsafe structures division's duties are restricted at present to issuing maintenance or evacuation notices.

In regards to structural maintenance operations carried out on behalf of the Jerusalem Municipality, adopted techniques tended to differ in their approach and nature from common procedures followed by Arab bodies, namely the AWIA. At all sites where remedial work was undertaken by the authority, damage was initiated by highly controversial, risky excavations directly beneath affected structures. In order to contain public outrage, both locally and abroad, the authority was forced to act immediately. Depending on the nature of damage, City engineers resorted to providing the most suitable form of alternative support, either permanent or temporary. Common techniques employed for structural support purposes in the Old City's Moslem Quarter include the following.

Steel tie-bars At numerous locations where vertical structural components (walls) suffered from cracking or outward overturning, 25 mm steel tie-bars were used to connect together opposite members. To provide fixity, a primitive version of prestressed concrete, circular steel plates and steel bolts were used on the exterior surfaces in both ends. The technique was highly advantageous in providing lateral support with very little effort and low cost. The procedure does have its drawbacks however, especially in relation to its local tearing effect in the case of additional induced forces. The technique is also criticised on the grounds that steel bars could be seen through living areas and only provide limited effective support.

Steel beams and stanchions Steel beam/stanchion towers were erected at several locations where external walls exhibited large lateral displacements. The technique proved effective in regards to providing support to instable structures but was criticised on two accounts. Firstly, its totally unharmonious shape with Old City construction and, secondly, its obstruction of traffic, especially in confined spaces.

Permanent tower support At situations that required immediate remedial action, where structural damage was very severe and other alternatives were not possible permanent support was erected directly below affected zones. In the majority of locations where similar techniques were deployed, large steel members were fixed in a tower shape, with timber planks used to fill in the curved and confined zones. Again, the bulky structures were very effective in providing support, but were not considered ideal in regards to space limitations and compatibility with the surroundings.

Concrete walls and foundations Both techniques were discussed in detail earlier in terms of structural stability and remedial work.

Demolition and re-construction In one or two rare incidents, the local authority was forced to completely re-construct severely damaged structures which were declared unsafe as a result of authority initiated activities in the area.

"Swan's mouth" segmental arched beams Many of the Old City's buildings have been held together by similarly constructed elements which were first erected hundreds of years ago. The relatively costly technique is ideal in serving structural as well as architectural purposes, by providing effective lateral stability and keeping in harmony with the surroundings.

A curved slightly tapered arched beam extends between opposite structures, meeting one side at right angles. A larger cross-section is usually fixed on the lower side. Whereas the ancient beams were typically from clay/rubble mixtures, such components are today constructed from reinforced or plain concrete sections that are faced with stone blocks on all sides. The use or otherwise of reinforcement depends upon other factors such as the length of span in question.

General comments

The majority of Arab inhabitants of the Old City express serious doubts as to the real intentions of the local authority's construction related activities in the City. Disregarding factors related to politics and economics, all beautification operations in the Old City have been widely criticised by Arab, and particularly Moslem engineers, architects and other scholarly sectors of the population. Structural maintenance operations have also been labelled with similar criticism, and at times accusation of either deliberate faulty execution or outright neglect. None of the recently executed facelifting projects in and around the City could be described as compatible with the traditional style of the City. Authority architects were repeatedly accused of depending on all forms of architecture other than Islamic; a combination of Ancient Roman or modern design concepts was largely used.

On a different note, the local authority is accused of neglecting urgent requirements (both in relation to architecture and civil engineering) in the Arab Quarters of the Old City. A typical example is the authority's disregard for repairing the numerous archways that are regarded as public property, and suffer from serious construction defects.

Public Services and Facilities

The most acknowledged and appreciated achievements of the local Israeli authority, as far as the Arab inhabitants of the Old City are concerned, are those in the field of public services. In spite of all obstacles and restraints facing such activities, the authority has managed throughout the last two decades to bring about numerous improvements in the local environment. In addition to the new sewage system project, the inhabitants have been highly appreciative of other services such as garbage disposal, new water mains, public toilets, telephone lines and public facilities.

In regards to parks and playing grounds, due to lack of space, only one such facility was established inside the Old City's Moslem Quarter. In Bab Hutta, a small yard was supplied with a handful of swings and other games. As for public toilets, the municipality has financed the installation of adequate facilities in various sectors of the City. All such facilities have so far been well maintained. Close to ten such facilities are at present operational in the Moslem Quarter, touristy places boasting the largest share.

Another valuable service that the Jerusalem Municipality operates is the daily collection of domestic waste, ensuring the previously littered streets and small alleys are kept free from unhygienic garbage. However, garbage heaps are still observed in many areas in the City, largely due to residents' non-cooperation and negligence. Before new water mains were installed in the Old City, the majority of homeowners relied on wells for their water supplies. At present, over 95% of the City's inhabited structures are connected to public networks. Most wells have been out of use or demolished altogether since the change. Telephone services have also improved tremendously during the last two decades.

While acknowledging the tremendous progress the City had undergone in relation to public services and facilities during Israeli rule, the reader should be reminded that similar progress had also been achieved in other parts of the country that were wholly run by Arab bodies, such as Bethlehem and other cities. On these grounds, one could easily dismiss the Israeli claims that the Arab people of Palestine have only become more civilized as a result of Israeli efforts. Most people insist that all efforts should be directed towards creating a more prosperous society under present conditions, no matter which party claims the credit.