III. Maintenance and Restoration Work in the Old City

(Part1)

Introduction

All budgets for construction projects include allowance for maintenance. Normally, that would be in the form of a percentage of the total capital committed during a specified period. Similarly, all forms of public and private institutions such as schools, hospitals, allocate an annual budget for routine maintenance and emergency repairs. Naturally, the older the product, the greater the frequency and scale of maintenance required for its continued use. It is not surprising that the Old City of Jerusalem with its buildings, roads, public services and other features of its operational life, demands enormous material and human effort in order to ensure its continued fitness for use, especially when the majority of its existing structures are over three centuries old.

Turbulent events in the City, during and before that period, only made matters worse in regard to structural stability and safety of construction. Many buildings were left unattended for years while many others suffered serious damage by either deliberate sabotage or as a result of improper use. Other factors explained earlier resulted in severe problems, which either hindered or totally prevented new maintenance work in some areas.

In the next few pages is an attempt to provide an overall insight into restoration work carried out inside the Old City today. The size of operations and their influence on society (not only the Old City's), whether that be economic, social or political, shall be touched upon. The bulk of the text however, shall be dedicated to a detailed account of technical operations carried out by the various bodies involved.

Special features of Old City construction

Specialized knowledge

The execution and supervision of maintenance and restoration work in the Old City requires the combined skills of various expert groups in order for favourable results to be achieved. As for supervision and design where required, it is necessary for the assigned team to include engineers, architects, archaeologists, technical assistants such as draughtsmen and foremen. All those involved should have received the necessary basic field training in order to have a "feel" for the unusual style of construction in the City. Structural engineers are generally assigned to deal with structure and strength of material of construction while architects primarily base their concerns on the "artistic" value and style. The two parties, in addition to having to work out compromise solutions for their interrelated issues, must also function within guidelines specified by the archaeologist in charge. The latter's primary concern is to ensure the preservation of the historical and traditional form of the structure in question. It is a must for all parties to command a minimum knowledge of the various techniques and material used in Old City construction. It must also be emphasized that the actual supervision and design procedures are too demanding and complex to be taken lightly or left to inexperienced personnel. As for the executors of work, the labour force, only highly specialised teams and individuals should be called upon. To a large extent, equivalent individual jobs in modern construction or maintenance bear little resemblance to Old City work.

Frequency and cost of work

With reference to the preceeding, many obstacles face the inhabitants and regular users of the Old City in regards to construction, repairs and maintenance. Such undesirable features as dampness, fast material decay and deterioration contribute to the frequency of maintenance requirements. It is common for homeowners to replace the interior wall plaster on a two yearly basis in some of the older structures ofthe City.

As for the cost of construction work, common features such as restricted access and non-uniform wall surfaces lead to inflated costs in comparison with other locations. Both labour and building material costs are much higher in building sites outside the City Walls, and material consumption is much higher.

Restrictions and limitations

Points made in this section do not generally apply to maintenance operations conducted by the Israeli authorities or other affiliated bodies, but are widely applicable to Moslem Quarter restoration work. Despite the presence of many other restraints that face supervisors and workers alike in restoration jobs within the Moslem Quarter of the City, only those of most influence shall be discussed. Limitations and conditions shall be listed according to the extent of their influence in hindering or preventing the execution of maintenance work.

Insufficient funds

Circumstances directly related to the political situation are mostly to blame for the shortage in funds for restoration projects inside the City. It is beyond the scope of this text to specify factors that prevent possible funding sources from assuming an active role. However, it would suffice to point out that the absence of a responsible legal authority on the one hand, and Israeli government restraints on the other, are mostly to blame.

With active Jewish settler groups enjoying almost unlimited financial support from non-Israeli Jewry throughout the world, the Arab population must rely on its own resources or await financial assistance from the Administration of Waqf and Islamic Affairs whose own sources, largely the government of Jordan, are also very limited. The wide gap between the two, Jewish and Arab, sides in that respect, is indicated by the fact that the Israeli authority spent close to half a million dollars on a mere catalogue about restoration work in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City in comparison with less than one third of that sum being annually allocated for restoration and maintenance work in Moslem owned property in the City. Shortage of funds is the most serious drawback facing those involved in Moslem Quarter restoration work. As for maintenance, those who pay the price are the inhabitants, whose own earnings do not even provide for an acceptable standard of living, let alone costly maintenance of their homes. The almost total reliance on either the local authority or the Waqf Administration is thus understandable. However, many homeowners receive assistance only after much damage had already been inflicted.

As to restoration and conservation of ancient structures inside the Old City, the quality of work is affected negatively by the shortage of funds. Supervision staff, archaeologists and architects in particular, have to accept compromise solutions in many cases. Many structures of great historical value have been left unrepaired and totally neglected for long periods as a result of the lack of funding. In sum, the shortage in funds allocated for maintenance of residential buildings and restoration of archaeologically significant sites inside the Old City affects, more than anything, the quality of work.

Limitations on change

This concept is best clarified through a number of case studies. A this stage, it is sufficient to stress the handicaps presented by the unusual style of Old City construction and related technical considerations. In particular, structural engineers face critical situations which demand the provision of support where existing forms of construction prevent the execution of relatively low-cost and simple solutions. In general, the limitations that exist on change, together with the desire to maintain the traditional style of construction, present a major obstacle to technical teams.

Authority restraints

The local Israeli authority, represented by the Municipality of Jerusalem, demands that all homeowners obtain a valid permit for planned construction work, including maintenance and restoration in their dwellings, no matter how small. The Arab population's experience with the authorities has led them to ignore this, on the grounds that permits are either too costly, or in some cases refused without any solid justification. Residents risk either being caught and penalized heavily for their illegal actions, or do not bother with execution of any work, thus leaving their homes to face further deterioration and weathering.

In many cases it was not only the beauty or elegance of a particular structural component that was put in jeopardy, but also it safety, and people's lives. In other cases, ailing roofs or load-bearing walls are left unrepaired because of inability to overcome minor technical conditions imposed by the authorities.

Inter-community lack of cooperation

It would not be fair to criticise the inhabitants' own practices and blame them alone for their misfortunes. However, on numerous occasions, trivial tenant/landlord disagreements prevents necessary repair work from being carried out by either side. The same could be said about uncompromising neighbours who continued to suffer as a result of their own stubborness. It is hoped that such attitudes will decline with the establishment of an independent Arab authority to administer the affairs of the local population.

Nature of restoration and maintenance work

Goals and aims

The allocation of funds for restoration and maintenance operations in the Old City is not only aimed at serving the local population, as the majority of homeowners naively believe. The whole issue is in fact much more complex. Decisions and steps taken are more often than not politically rather than technically motivated. Restoration and maintenance work in the Old City has been expanding steadily to become a major industry that many people's livelihood depends upon. The purposes and goals of these operations are listed here by order of importance.

Maintaining an Arab majority in the City

Since early times, the Old City had been recognised as a symbol of Islam, and more recently of Arab nationalism. Today, it is regarded as the urgent duty of every Arab and Moslem individual throughout the world to ensure the continuity of history in that respect. The allocation of funds for maintenance of Arab homes in the Old City is aimed before all else at encouraging those residents who are unable to live in unfit or in some cases unsafe dwellings, and cannot afford their maintenance, to remain in their present residence in the Old City, rather than to move into other neighbourhoods outside the City Walls. The most effective step that could be taken would be the uninterrupted provision of financial aid for transforming homes and the City's neighbourhoods into more pleasant places to live in.

Conservation of traditional style

The architecture of the Old City is not only shapes or forms of buildings. It represents a visual living proof of the way of life and tradition of the many glorious civilizations that flourished in the City in the past. Apart from very few pre-tenth century buildings, the majority of Old City structures are of post-Ayyubid (late eleventh century) age. Today, the City could be thought of as a museum containing precious samples of great historic and religious value. Conservation of these is essential to ensure their survival for many years to come so that future generations may enjoy and appreciate them.

Economic value

The construction industry provides employment for a large sector of the population not only in Jerusalem, but also in the surrounding villages and towns. Funds allocated for restoration and maintenance work in the Old City contribute to a more prosperous local economy. One million or so dollars are spent annually on one form of construction or another. The largest proportion of this goes to those directly employed in the construction sector. Tens of building contractors, who in turn employ tens of various skilled and non-skilled labourers and craftsmen, have become dependent on such projects for their livelihood. In addition, building material suppliers, tractor drivers, and administrative and technical staff stand to benefit directfrom funds allocated. Finally, local shopkeepers also benefit from the presence of more people and more money spent in the City.

Conservation of Moslem heritage

In accordance with a well-planned scheme aimed at changing the traditional Moslem style of the City, the Israeli authorities have been conducting questionable restoration operations in the Moslem sector of the City. In many parts of the City, old buildings with deteriorated components receive new looks in the process. The resulting contrast with the surroundings is deplorable.

Conservation operations carried out by Arab or Islamic bodies aim to oppose such Israeli attempts to distort the Moslem and Arab character of the City. All personnel involved in such work are not only qualified but are also chosen as patriotic and conscientious individuals who deeply appreciate the unique character and rich heritage of their valued City.

Training and experience

Conservation and restoration work in the Old City provides an ideal training ground for academics who wish to acquire practical education in the fields of Art and Technology. Unfortunately, the potential importance of the City in that respect is neither fully realised nor efficiently utilized by local Arab scholars, and generally attracts broader recognition from overseas researchers. Arab academics, who admit their lack of productive and effective participation in those fields, blame the political and economic instability in the region for their slackness. This is partly true since all academic institutions in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are subjected to censorship and all forms of restraints, even arbitrary closure.

Possible applied research fields in the Old City include archaeology, architecture and engineering in relation to art and technology. Abundant material for research could be found in the fields of social studies, history and even psychology. Archaeologists in particular are the single group that could gain most benefit from the real-life laboratory. Also for engineers, the City's ancient structures, roads, sewage networks and other technical issues make possible, and indeed necessary, the conduct of research into such fields as material of construction, structural stability, dampness, in the process providing field training for foremen, draughtsmen and engineers.

The same also applies to architects who wish to specialize in Moslem architecture, recognised throughout the world to be one of the most splendid and artistic forms of building. Architects involved in restoration work possess, at their convenient disposal, a rare situation where one could combine the existing old with new design concepts.

Finally, it is the demand of many, especially those already involved in such work, that efforts be directed towards the creation of a non-profit research facility, including among its staff representatives of all specialities referred to, for the benefit of the Arab and Moslem cause of the City. Such a formation would be guaranteed to produce very fruitful results in improving the standard of operations performed in the Old City today.

Maintenance versus Restoration

It is essential at this stage to point out the distinction between maintenance of residential structures on one hand, and the restoration of ancient buildings on the other. The two operations combine for the realisation of one common goal, that of preserving the City through ensuring the fitness for use of its structures. Maintenance work could be defined as physical repair of damaged components so that they become operational once again. It also includes the work that needs to be performed regularly in order to prevent malfunctioning of used objects. For buildings and related facilities, maintenance involves the replacement of damaged parts, or adding to them as a means of providing extra strength or preventing further damage. In the Old City, maintenance work might include new construction if the need arises, usually when residents wish to create additional space rather than actual repairs.

Other activities that could be classified as maintenance include the use of modern techniques and material, such as the replacement of old deteriorated timber windows with steel or aluminum, marble floors with more economic mosaic tiles, stone-tiled roofs with reinforced concrete slabs and topped with a water-resistant layer of asphalt and fibreglass. Also classified as maintenance operations are asbestos and tin roofs, solar heating equipment and interior sanitary installations.

Restoration work remains in agreement with maintenance so long as no form of new construction is introduced, and replaced parts are not substituted by modern incompatible ones. Restoration could, thus, be defined as bringing back an object to its original shape or form. In Old City work, it can have an extra dimension, that of bringing back to its original state, not only the form or shape of a particular structure, but also its purpose of use. Unfortunately, this would be virtually impossible under present circumstances. At this stage, besides clarifying the distinction between maintenance and restoration operations as applicable to Old City structures, we should point out the conflict in interests that faces the various teams involved in both lines of work, to provide a complete picture that would help all sides to better understand the concerns and priorities of each other.

Over two hundred structures of historic or religious significance to Arabs in general and Moslems in particular exist today in the Moslem sector of the Old City. None of those structures were originally intended for use as family residence. The majority were teaching institutions (Madrassas), Ribats, Khanquas or Zawiyas that were established for public use. As earlier explained, such compounds are today used as residential buildings; the average sized Madrassa provides residence for at least three separate families.

Understandably, the transformation in the purpose of use forced the introduction of alterations on the original interior design, and partitioning of various structures. Common changes or alterations performed by the new occupants included the addition of new cement block partitions, asbestos and reinforced concrete roofs, solar heating installations, new-style doors and windows, bathroom and sanitary fittings; in some locations, complete original walls or other structural components were demolished to create extra living space.

Other less common alterations include the removal of original features of buildings at some locations, for instance decorated or patterned stone profiles.

The clash of interests that exists today between the various specialist restoration and maintenance operators is due to a combination of three major issues: the cost of alternatives; required quality of the end product; and the intended purpose of a particular structure. Other less influencial issues are the strength, durability, practicality or timing of proposed operations.

Civil and structural engineers are often blamed for being more inclined to adopt the less costly solutions placing little emphasis on other issues such as the final shape, or form of the product. They are also accused of seeking easy, practical options, that take into consideration strength, safety and durability, regardless of elegance or compatibility.

This is not totally untrue. In their training, engineers are constantly reminded of such issues. On the other hand, undergraduate engineers are encouraged to work on projects in association with architects and building engineers, aimed at teaching each group something about the others' basic requirements in relation to construction projects and design work, and to seek compromise approaches that ensure the inclusion of each group's basic demands in the final product, and encouragement of mutual cooperation and joint decision making.

Architects' training generally makes sure that design skills and artistic talent are directed towards the creation of an all-round, compatible product that combines beauty and visual symmetry. Unlike engineering training, less attention is devoted to economic consider. Further complexity is presented by the demands and wishes of archaeologists, whose work is based on discovering and conserving ancient objects of value, without much regard to other issues. In general, archaeologists are "closer" to architects than engineers as far as construction work in the Old City is concerned.

Authenticity, and the restoration of altered features of old structures to their original forms, is one of the most debatable issues that makes the archaeologist's job a lot more challenging in the Old City in comparison with other groups. This feature was particularly noticeable in inhabited buildings where residents were totally opposed to any activity in their homes that directly interfered with their comfort and needs.

The Al-karimiyya Madrassa compound, next to the Bab-hutta gate on the Haram's northern side, is currently occupied by four families, each sharing a two-room home. The external stone wall had for some time been threatening to overturn and collapse on the street side. Large stone blocks, forming a two and a half metre high arch, only held together by virtue of their size. A few years back, the then new residents of the first floor of the compound closed down the original main entrance on street level. A recent decision to repair the wall profile was initially blocked by engineer/architect/archaeologist disagreements. The engineer decided to remove the displaced stone blocks by pouring reinforced concrete and replacing the blocks in their original positions. Deteriorated stones were to be replaced by new white limestone blocks. The architect demanded that no weathered stones be replaced, but treated by hammer in order that the same form of stone surface would be maintained throughout the whole profile. The archaeologist was in complete agreement with the architect as far as keeping the original stones was concerned, but insisted on an additional re-opening of the recently blocked arched entrance which altered drastically the original features of the Madrassa building. The residents refused the request insisting that their privacy and safety were more important that the archaeological value of the structure.

Pointing out the distinction between maintenance and restoration work in the Old City primarily aims to reach all parties involved in such work, including the various specialized groups such as engineers, architects and archaeologists, to enhance their appreciation of each other's needs and difficulties. Good quality and smooth execution of operations require each group to use the knowledge and skill of the other. In cases where any one of the three parties was solely in charge of supervision, it would be advised that consultation be sought from at least one of the other two or advice sought from available literature. It is saddening that restrictions imposed by the various groups, even those standing to benefit from such work, prevent the execution of desirable courses of action.

Who does the work

Maintenance and restoration work in the Old City's Moslem Quarter is generally performed under the direct authority of one of three parties with different purposes and operational strategies: the Administration of Waqf and Islamic Affairs, the public Moslem trust authority; the Israeli local authority, the Municipality of Jerusalem; or independent property owners.

Other parties that perform construction work include the East Jerusalem Development Company (EJDC), and the various Christian churches that own property in the Christian, Armenian and the Moslem Quarter of the City. EJDC operations were mainly concentrated in the Jewish Quarter of the City and other Jewish property wherever it existed.

It is necessary to limit the discussion to operations performed by the first three parties. Christian churches and other institutions and the EJDC shall not be discussed separately due to their minor role in Moslem Quarter work.

The Administration of Waqf and Islamic Affairs (AWIA)

The role of the Waqf administration in Palestine is not restricted to Moslem religious affairs as the title might indicate. In the aftermath of the Six-Day War in 1967, the local Arab population had to look for a stable authority that could be relied upon for protection from the aggressive Zionist regime. The Waqf administration seemed to be the only able body qualified to assume the new role of political and social leadership. Today, the Administration is regarded as the most influencial Arab authority in the land, even by the Israeli government. Below, an attempt will be made to cast some light into the activities, tasks and operations the Administration has taken upon itself with respect to protecting Arab (Moslem and Christian) interests on one hand, and to stand in the face of Israeli aggression on the other. General notes in relation to the origin and nature of the Waqf concept shall be kept brief because of the abundance of relevant literature, by Moslem and other authors alike.

Origin and goals

No exact equivalent is available in the English language for the Arabic term "Al waqf", "trust" is the closest. The concept originated indirectly from the teachings of the Islamic religion, and the Holy Quran, which called on the people to preserve and glorify the Moslem heritage and tradition by every possible means. The Quran demanded that the wealthy members of the community should contribute generously to the poor and needy, and to help establish and organise non-profit institutions serving the Moslem society and protecting the welfare of its members.

In accordance with these teachings, and the general aims of the Moslem religion, the Waqf concept came into existence. The best definition so far given is that a certain property becomes entrusted under Waqf control when its original owners have given up their ownership rights for religious motives; in effect it is donated to the Moslem public, and its income spent on charitable causes and the general good of the people. In the past, the income was spent in such fields as the army, ransoms for prisoners of war, dowry for poor girls, helping the poor and elderly, health and education services.

Alwaqf in Palestine

In Moslem countries worldwide, religious affairs are administered by a special ministry of waqf and religious affairs. Its duties are generally restricted to religion-related establishments such as courts of law, "marriage bureaus", mosques and religious teaching institutions. As far as Palestine is concerned, the country's unique current status has added a new dimension to the Administration's legal and executive status. The Alwaqf has grown in size and influence since the Ottoman era, when the former took upon itself the execution of many activities in the fields of health, education, social welfare, religious affairs and others. Until today, the Alwaqf can also boast ownership of a large amount of property in and around all the big cities in Palestine.

Alwaqf in Jerusalem

Since the Mamluk reign over the City, Jerusalem had always gained the lion's share from Alwaqf's benefits and income. The Old City in particular continued to be a priviledged centre, hosting the general administration offices as well as no less than twenty other affiliated offices and institutions. In terms of property ownership, almost 80% of all property in the Moslem Quarter are Waqf owned (either "absolute" or "family" Waqf). Even outside the Old City perimeter, the Administration is entrusted several kilometres of land, and tens of commercial and residential buildings within the Jerusalem district alone.

Status and duties

The administration of Waqf and Islamic affairs (AWIA) office in Jerusalem is the regional West Bank headquarters; the main office being in the Jordanian capital, Amman. The AWIA is directly responsible to the Ministry of Alwaqf in the Jordanian government and all Palestinian Waqf employees are regarded as Jordanian civil servants despite the August 1988 legal and administrative separation between the West Bank and Gaza Strip and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.

Following the 1967 Arab/Israeli war, the AWIA was the only surviving official institution in the occupied land. In response to heavy international pressure, amongst other considerations, an unwritten agreement of mutual, relative non-interference was reached between AWIA officials and the Israeli authorities. The former were allowed to operate locally and continue with their pre-occupation duties within a framework of relative independence. The Israelis did however specify certain guidelines within which the AWIA could operate, especially in relation to "security" considerations and local municipality regulations. The policy of non-interference was to remain in force as long as the above were abided by.

For the Waqf West Bank branch, the most important corollary of Israeli occupation and the subsequent termination of Jordanian rule, were its new duties and responsibilities. In effect the AWIA was assigned to the management of all Jordanian government affairs in the West Bank, even in such fields as agriculture, industry and commerce. The AWIA remained the only legal channel through which funds could be transferred into the occupied land from Jordanian or other sources. Finally, in relation to the status of the AWIA under Israeli rule, it is accepted that no legal contact is established between the two sides. Waqf officials refrain from dealing with the Israeli courts. Employees are also not subject to taxation as are the remainder of the population. AWIA is currently in charge of a wide variety of institutions and organisations which operate within its framework, some under its direct authority, others on behalf of absentee authority.

Directly affiliated bodies

All personnel working in such organisations receive their pay directly from the Waqf, and enjoy all the rights and privileges of Jordanian civil servants. The AWIA conducts its operations from a general headquarters, situated in the Old City, Bab Almajlis, housing the general Waqf manager in the West Bank, accounting, legal affairs, administrative affairs, treasury, personnel and West Bank affairs.

Regional offices are located in Jerusalem, Ramallah, Nablus, Jenin, Tulkaram, Bethlehem and Hebron. Over 100 civil guards are assigned on a 24-hour basis in the Haram Al-Sharif, in addition to clergy and cleaners serving the Aqsa Mosque and Dome of the Rock and surrounding religious compounds. The Archaeology Department employs over 40 people in various specialities such as archaeology, architecture, engineering and technical drawing; the office also operates a fully equipped photography laboratory. Public relations, Religious affairs and the Pilgrimage department operate through separate offices at various locations within the Old City.

The Islamic Museum and Islamic library are situated in the Haram compound. Dar-Alaytam Orphanage School accommodates close to one thousand pupils in three separate buildings, one of which is situated in the Old City, the remaining two in suburbs of Jerusalem. Alaqsa Schools include elementary, preparatory and secondary boys and girls schools in and around the Haram perimeter and a kindergarten.

Indirectly affiliated organisations

These include health centres in Jerusalem and other cities, and schools with over 10,000 pupils in the Jerusalem district; higher education institutions, such as the College of Islamic Teaching in Jerusalem and nearby towns; and the Alaqsa Mosque Restoration Committee.

Role of the AWIA in maintenance and restoration work in the Old City

The preceding account regarding the nature of Alwaqf acquaints the reader with the terminology and emphasizes the extent of dependence of Old City residents in particular on the support and service of the AWIA.

In regards to maintenance and restoration, the AWIA is almost exclusively in charge of Moslem owned property inside the Old City. Apart from the Committee for the restoration of Alaqsa mosque, construction work of all forms is generally performed under the direct authority of one of two bodies: the Engineering Office at general headquarters; or the Department of Islamic Archaeology at Bab Alhadid, about 100 yards away.

The Engineering Office

The engineering office is regarded as the executive arm of the AWIA; it is by far the most active operational system within the department. At present, the office employs just over thirty full-time professional staff and technicians, including two architects, and three structural engineers in addition to a number of draughtsmen, foremen, plumbers and electricians.

Office operations are executed according to limitations of annual budgets that allow for staff salaries, maintenance and repairs, new construction projects and a sizeable allowance for emergencies. In the last few years the office's annual budget was in the region of one million dollars. Any Waqf Sahih (Absolute) property in the West Bank is eligible for the free services of the Engineering Office in regards to maintenance and any required improvements. New construction projects, mostly schools, hospitals, commercial centres, mosques and other public buildings, are wholly designed and supervised by Engineering Office staff. Such projects are generally aimed at utilizing Waqf-owned land, creating revenue and providing public services of a non-profit nature.

Old City work

In regards to the Old City, the Engineering Office is fully in charge of conducting repairs and carrying out modifications in Waqf-owned property, such as improving the electrical installations in the Haram, and connecting new sewage lines to residential buildings. The bulk of the Office's Old City budget is allocated to regular and emergency maintenance of residential, Waqf-owned property; the remainder is spent on the maintenance of mosques, the Haram compound and other structures of religious value such as tombs. Maintenance of around ten Waqf schools in the Old City is also the responsibility of the Engineering Office. Other services that the Office provides to the local community include the production of official and non-official technical reports and other documents and consultancy services that the general public is accustomed to receive free from AWIA staff.

The Department of Islamic Archaeology

The most technically oriented department within the AWIA infrastructure, the Department of Islamic Archaeology (DIA), was initially established for pure research purposes such as the documentation of historic and religious structures in the Old City and all of Palestine. The speedy growth and development of the DIA is exemplified by the increase in the number of employees from one archaeologist almost ten years ago, to the present team of three archaeologists, two architects, one structural engineer and a number of assistant technicians.

The DIA operates through three channels, each specialised in its own field:

archaeology department: assigned to the production of complete documents including general surveys and detailed architectural drawings of all sites and/or structures inside the Old City of any architectural significance;

the Centre for Maintenance and Restoration of Archaeological Sites in Jerusalem: in accordance with previously prepared plans, the Centre's staff supervise the execution of complex restoration operations (structural and architectural) in structures of historical or religious value. The Centre employs, on a daily basis, various craftsmen in addition to the full-time team of an architect, archaeologist and a structural engineer;

the Committee for Alwaqf Alzurri (Family Waqf) which carries out regular maintenance and repairs in Waqf property inside the Old City (amounting to over 60% of all Moslem property); through an engineer, a foreman and a clerical assistant, it supervises the execution of work in privately owned property in emergencies. Initially, it was established to provide homeowners with financial and technical aid in situations demanding urgent attention. At present, all Arab residents of the Old City are eligible for such aid. This Committee uses local building contractors for each individual job. Financial/administrative affairs are co-managed by the DIA and the AWIA. In reality, the Committee performs the majority of maintenance work in Moslem owned property all over the Old City.

Engineering Office and Archaeology Department operations in the Old City

A detailed technical account shall be presented in relation to restoration work in the City. The presentation shall be divided into two main categories, maintenance and restoration. The analysis is based on a complex classification strategy in reference to ownership, purpose of use and history, which distinguishes between each item's technical nature. Construction techniques shall be listed for similar jobs, and reference made to material, quality, practicality and cost of each operation. It is hoped that recommendations would eventually be formulated as to the most efficient and effective restoration and maintenance techniques that would best serve the Old City's architectural and structural requirements.

Technical know-how and quality of work

As reported earlier, all maintenance and restoration operations are designed, planned and supervised by the coordinated efforts of architects, archaeologists and engineers. All personnel involved in such operations are wholly dependent on the experience and advice of their predecessors who worked in the same field. It is not possible to obtain any academic instruction or training on Old City construction. All technical know-how put into practise by restoration teams at present is based on personal experience and field work. Despite the abundance of technical literature on old construction techniques, and Moslem architecture in general, none is of use in practice because they lack emphasis on practical specific restoration considerations.

Even within the AWIA and DIA employees are discouraged from trying out different experimental techniques, for administrative or financial reasons, and are forced to adhere to previously adopted traditional methods and materials. Especially for the new graduate engineer or architect, it would be extremely difficult to test and improve on the current standard approach to operations.

It must be emphasized at this stage that Old City architecture and general layout is unique in comparison with other similar cities in the world. The much sought after objective of many engineers and technically oriented professionals involved in restoration and maintenance work is the establishment of a research facility with relative economic and administrative flexibility and freedom specialising in Old City construction. A fully detailed recommendation in that respect shall be formulated after pointing out the many deficiencies that exist today in this field.

It is to be remembered that the currently adopted restoration and maintenance techniques are for from perfect for providing suitable solutions to the City's numerous structural and architectural problems. Many external factors are very influential in regards to the nature and efficiency of such methods. Most of all, from a technical point of view, scientifically based practical know-how is missing; thus, those teams responsible for planning and executing such operations should not be wholly blamed.

Despite all the above mentioned factors, it is recognised that the general standard of restoration and maintenance work carried out by the AWIA and other individuals at present, is quite acceptable, judging by the observed results and the current structural and architectural state of the Old City's Moslem sector.

General approach

A short preview of the general approach adopted towards construction operations shall serve as an introductory note to those readers unfamiliar with the Old City environment. Before that, however, it is necessary to provide a brief description of the general style of construction in the City as a whole, and a close look at the structural features in particular. For further information on the methods and materials used in typical Moslem architecture, the reader is advised to refer to any one or more of a number of excellent publications available; the account provided in this text shall be very brief and general.

Old City architecture and structural design

The following description is purely technical, rather than sentimental as with many foreign and local authors who excelled in portraying exotic, beautiful images of the Old City. In terms of age, the majority of the City's buildings are over 200 years old; many are almost 1,000 years old and are still structurally stable and serviceable until this day. Despite the numerous alternations and modifications introduced by homeowners over the years, Old City structures remain very consistent with their original structural form. The change in the purpose of use of buildings has made interior alterations inevitable. Another factor is the progress and development in home requirements such as ceramic bathrooms, aluminum windows and solar heating installations. An aerial picture of the City reveals the numerous stone-tiled domes of all shapes and sizes, overshadowing the flat roofs of more recently constructed buildings. A few structures are covered with red clay tiles supported on sloping timber trusses.

As far as domes are concerned, the majority are segmental arched, almost semi-circular while others are pointed arched and a few are horseshoe shaped. Also clearly evident are the inner open yards around which the dome-roofed chambers are centred, and through which steep flights of stairs between floors of multi-storey structures pass.

Most distinctive of almost all of the City's residential buildings are the exterior stonework surfaces. In addition to walls, the majority of roof surfaces are covered with stone tiles. A few roofs exhibit today the blackish-grey colour of concrete commonly used in recent years as a replacement for deteriorated tiles.

As for the general layout of the Old City, the visitor soon recognises the uninterrupted continuity of its buildings, making it seem one huge structure formed from a network of adjoined extensions. Continuity is even carried over across streets and alleys via portal frames, as in public pathways, or simply supported spans as in single-chamber dwellings. The City's buildings are rich in cantilevered balconies, projecting up to two metres into the street in most cases. The majority of balconies are not covered and are supported on I-section steel beams, popular in the first half of the century; and stone cobbles in the older structures which also support roofed balconies. A few timber verandas, both covered and uncovered, are observed in certain neighbourhoods.

As for interior and structural member design in Old City buildings, with the exception of the few more recently constructed structures that in general employed building techniques similar to today's, all currently serviceable structures consist of double-faced stone load-bearing walls that support vaulted, flat or domed roof/floor slabs. Vaults are either barrel (in rectangular space) or cross-vaulted (in square space). Support is normally provided at four opposite corners via staunch stone columns that act as sitting "benches" for vault sides. Columns only rise to approximately two thirds of the clear height between floor and roof slabs. Domes on the other hand vary considerably in size and shape. Structural support is provided for in most cases through circular drums, on some occasions eight and twelve sided.

Another common feature of interior decor in Old City buildings is the lintels and arches spanning across door and window openings. Lintels generally consist of either a single large stone, typically up to 1.2 m long or a keystone between two cantilevered blocks; all three are usually of equal size.

Foundations of Old City buildings are virtually non-existent in the forms known today. Parts of the City are supported on older, semi-demolished hidden structures; others are mounted on stone foundations not greater than half a metre in depth. From a structural point of view, such foundations only provide for vertical loading, and cannot be counted on to resist bending moments or torsion forces that the structure might be subjected to. Such foundations are also blamed for the lack of continuity between members of the same structure.

As for material used, walls and slabs are gfilled with clay-boulder-rubble mixtures, not the concrete used today; while plasters are mainly gypsum or lime mixes.

Structural maintenance operations

In response to the frequent complaints of worried residents, the AWIA has taken upon itself to perform structural maintenance operations in Moslem owned property. Technical staff in charge of work were instructed to carry out regular inspection tours in the various sectors of the City. Due to limited funds and the large number of aid applications (almost all of the City's Moslem Quarter residents have filed in applications for that purpose), it had become a general policy for AWIA, to performs only the most basic requirements of maintenance, to just ensure the continued fitness and stability of buildings. Unnecessary modifications such as ceramic bathroom tiling were ignored.

General maintenance and repair policy is directed towards providing extra strength and stability while adhering to original forms and overall style of the Old City. Work executors are encouraged to avoid all basic design alterations or modifications, unless thought absolutely vital to the future stability of any structure.

The Old City Structure

The ancient structures of the Old City have managed to remain reasonably fit for use for hundreds of years, and shall hopefully continue to do so for many more, as a result of the combined influence of a number of factors. First, the continuity and close attachment of buildings which provide extra lateral and vertical stability to individual structures. The rigid and effective horizontal continuity also reduces the consequences of ground settlement and provides resistance to overturning moments induced by lateral loading. Second, the oversized individual structural elements such as the width of wall sections (not less than 80cm in most) and depth of slabs which provides strength and durability to the structure as a whole. The excessive self weight of members also contributes to providing stability in all planes. Third, regular structural maintenance and repair operations over the years have contributed immensely to the preservation of the City's structures as they are today. Many buildings have been demolished and rebuilt by successive owners who also carried out repairs to damaged or weakened structural components. Finally, the City's pious population, including Jews, Moslems and Christians, consider that the protection of God is the main reason for its "survival" (despite its frequent destruction in the past). The third factor is the only one that can be influenced today and in future.

Foundations

Structural foundations, as we know them today, do not exist in the Old City; maintenance work at foundation level generally involve the use of new material or components, rather than repairing existing members. Defects in foundation induce very serious damage to supported structures, and in soft ground, eventually lead to failure. Most common defects include:

Ground settlement: collapse of soil element

The average bearing capacity of natural soil (mostly rocky formations) in the region is relatively high in comparison, thus allowing greater loads to be supported through structural foundations. In Old City structures, even in the absence of suitable foundations, very few incidents of structural damage resulting from ground settlement were reported before the 1970's, after which such incidents became very common. The main reason behind the sudden turnaround was the excavations of the City's lower levels by the Israeli authorities. Wide scale excavations, whether for archaeological purposes, for tunneling or for the installation of utility lines, have shaken what existed of the City's foundations, causing widespread ground settlement and severe structural damage in many locations.

Where excavations were directly underneath the affected zones, immediate ground settlement was observed. But in other locations, where excavations were close to building foundations, damage was not instantaneous. It generally followed a gradual pattern and the mechanism of soil collapse was completely different. The affected soil element was composed of an inverted, almost perfectly triangular, slice with its apex at mid-width of the excavated element. The angle of divergence, and thus the size of the affected zone, depended mostly on the natural soil properties and its state (loose, dense).

Numerous examples could be provided from observations made in the Bab-Hutta neighbourhood, shortly after the commencement of work on a new local sewage network. Excavations revealed a mostly boulder clay soil in most locations, whereas in others the removed top layer (up to one metre in depth including dumped material) revealed a shocking view of an empty volume directly underneath. Street tiles were only held in place by a layer of clay/gravel mixture not greater than 30 cm deep. As one-metre depths were reached in excavations, external walls of nearby structures soon exhibited cracking and limited local displacements which developed into a frightening overturning mode in many cases.

Theoretical analysis

Keeping in mind the fact that load-bearing walls consist of two stone "leaves" on either side of a rubble/clay/mortar mixture (80 cm on average), it is expected that the displacement in all or part of the wall section, as a result of ground settlement, would depend amongst other factors on the nature of the wall's foundations, the extent of the affected soil element, and local bonding within the wall section.

Field observations have proved that in the majority of cases, the sequence of damage started with the outermost stone surface undergoing a horizontal displacement (deflection from its original vertical plane), after which slower rates of deflection were observed as a result of additional moments induced by eccentric loading. In cases where strong inter-bonding was present, the clay/rubble mixture, and subsequently the innermost stone wall surface, automatically followed suit and settled into a new position causing substantial cracking in the process. Cracks soon developed further to reach other parts of the structure, slabs, floors etc., to relieve excessive tensile stresses. In other situations where foundations have settled into lower levels, the whole wall section had acted as one unit with severe transverse cracks developing across both sides of the wall section. Floor and roof slabs also suffered similar damage and connected adjacent walls completely separated from each other.

In general terms, structural damage resulting from ground settlement reaches gradually all members of any structure. Where only mild damage had occurred, cracks could be observed along irregular cement bonding lines, whereas in the more severe cases cracks could be detected in the stronger stone blocks themselves. In the former case, tensile stresses have chosen the weaker kuhla lines to be relieved along.

Treatment strategy and techniques

In general, treatment strategy was based on the need to provide alternative stronger foundations as a first step, to be followed by the repair of the resultant damage in other parts of the structure. In situations where immediate action was essential, it was often decided to provide above ground level, alternative support, either permanent or temporary, and consequently ignore the need to repair any below ground level damage.

Approval maintenance techniques varied between locations, depending on the allocated funds, space limitations and other factors which in some cases had prevented the execution of any remedial work, leaving the structure in question abandoned for many years (no less than twenty homes in the Moslem Quarter of the City are currently unoccupied because classified as unsafe. All such dwellings had suffered severe and extensive cracking and were evacuated shortly after excavations were carried out in their vicinity. Many other structures are deserted at present in various locations within the Moslem Quarter, for other reasons).

Due to the non-uniform nature of operations in the field of maintenance and repair work, treatment techniques are best explained in rto real-life analogous situations.

Reinforced concrete foundations

Except where economic or technical (safety) considerations prevented it, new reinforced concrete foundations were placed in all cases where evidence of defects in foundations were observed. In Harat Alsaadiyya neighbourhood, a girls school was surrounded by a three metre high 25 metre long stone wall, above street level. A recently installed sewage pipeline less than one metre away from the wall surface caused severe cracking across the wall in many areas. The wall was also acting as a retaining wall, supporting a soil volume almost two metres high from the school's side. Immediately after pipeline installations were completed in the area, individual stone blocks showed signs of relatively large displacements (up to three metres). Swift remedial work was decided upon. Trenches were excavated at 0.60 m width and 2.0 m depth, below street level, with the trench extending half its total width in the wall direction. Two separate reinforced concrete beams were placed on top of each other below ground level. Overall, 85 cubic metres of reinforced concrete were poured below ground level before displaced stones were re-built and kuhla was applied to the whole wall profile.

In a similar case in the Christian Quarter of the City, a three storey structure (owned by a Moslem family Waqf) suffered serious cracking, surface deflections (local overturning) and even falling stone blocks in some areas, also as a result of nearby recent sewage excavations. The building was situated at a street corner with both sides showing evidence of severe damage.

The first stage of the repair process included pouring reinforced concrete foundations in the form of a continuous tie beam along the whole length of the building facing the street. Trenches were later excavated and concrete poured in the whole excavated volume, after reinforcement bars were placed in both planes. Remedial work performed above ground level included the pouring of a reinforced concrete column at the structure's corner.

At a private home in Bab Hutta, a two-storey structure built in two stages, the owner had evacuated the premises upon the first signs of structural damage in the ground floor's external walls. While all members of the structure had suffered only minor cracking, the main wall extending perpendicularly into the main road direction exhibited the most serious damage. The wall outermost stone surface was deflected outward at a very steep angle, especially in the top half.

Upon considering ideal structural remedial work, the engineer in charge was faced with very restricted space, especially in that the building's main street gate was only a few inches away from the wall. In the end, it was decided to pump concrete below ground level to provide extra strength at the foundations. Timber scaffold was erected to remove out of position stone blocks and the weak clay/rubble layer after which reinforced concrete was poured and finally the stones were replaced. Finally, two tapered reinforced concrete columns were placed to provide lateral support for the main wall.

In Bab Alhadid, just outside the Western Haram border, extensive archaeological excavations carried out by the Israeli authorities in the early seventies caused extensive damage in many structures all over the neighbourhood. Most damage was observed in a simply supported structure spanning across a small alley which led into a very crowded residential complex. Since no other solution was physically or economically feasible, it was recommended that permanent, above ground level substitute support be provided. As it turned out, a composite steel truss and timber scaffold "tower" 3 m wide was erected below the damaged section of the structure. A pedestrian passage was left on either side. The steel support was composed of a repeated truss pattern, topped by thick timber planks of various lengths, that filled the arched segment of the structure's floor. A nearby structure, also suffering similar damage, was strengthened with a 0.20 m wide, 1.20 m high plain concrete wall along the inside perimeter of the damaged area. The process provided effective lateral support to individual walls and to the structure as a whole. Steel tie-bars and similar techniques deployed in the same region shall be discussed at a later stage.

Lastly, in Bab Alsilsileh road, archaeological excavations carried out directly below a privately owned home, and throughout the whole neighbourhood, had caused the deflection of one of the walls adjacent to a steep flight of stairs which led to the second storey of the building. The latter had also exhibited severe cracks in its floor and internal walls. The other side of the one metre wide staircase was bordered by another stone wall that in turn had not suffered any sizeable damage. The wall was part of another structure that had recently been repaired.

In addition to repairing internal wall and ceiling plaster, a steel I-beam-stanchion structure was erected across the stairs to provide lateral support to the main stone wall. Steel beams were pivoted on the opposite wall while stanchions were placed at intermediate intervals to support the horizontal beams. The latter's use was extremely advantageous in that maximum benefit was obtained from the unfavourable space limitations in the closely packed housing compound. The complete new steel support did however reduce the already narrow and uncomfortable staircase. In addition to its unpleasant incompatible look, the steel tower was of no benefit in providing support at foundation level.

Other factors affecting structural foundations stability in Old City buildings include: physical displacement of foundations which might be induced by vertical and/or horizontal sheer forces or ground movements. In such cases where stone foundations had either shifted or tilted in a two-dimensional plane, the extent of damage in overlying structures was minimal and in many cases only temporary. Collapse of foundations either resulted from material decay or collapse of underlying buried structures, unknown to exist, but providing vertical support to the main structure for many years. Such cases were very rare, but were known to occur in the past, and resulted in immediate collapse of the supported structure.

Summary

In conclusion, it is estimated that over 90% of cases where foundation-related defects were detected in Old City structures, damage had originally resulted from natural ground settlement or movement which in turn was induced through nearby excavations, the remainder caused by other less common factors. All techniques used at present for solving foundation-related problems are only partly effective. It would be extremely difficult for technical professionals in charge of such operations to achieve more favourable results without being provided with the chance to conduct experimental techniques. Under the present circumstances, this would be most unlikely to change, for many reasons most of which have been refered to earlier. The most serious restraint is the high risk involved when one is dealing with the unstable lower levels of the City. It would involve equal risk to try out experimental techniques which might prove inappropriate, and would either result in serious damage or could not be reversed. It would seem unadvisable to resort to such action at present in order to avoid jeopordising the overall stability of the City.

Finally, it is hoped that the future shall bring about better prospects for solving these and other problems that threaten the stable existence of the Old City. All the preceeding methods were not presented as ideal solutions but were merely reported in this context precisely as they were executed by the respective operators.