II. Undesirable Features of Old City Residence

Introduction

It would be unfair to condemn the Old City of Jerusalem on account of its unsuitability for modern living, with disregard for its great historical value. It must be remembered that the present City layout, with its compact structure and network of narrow and badly paved roads, had been almost unchanged for hundreds of years. General improvements introduced in the past had to cope with the lack of space and other restraints. This one should thus keep in mind when comparing the merits or drawbacks of other cities in the region with Jerusalem.

Be that as it may, living conditions within the walls leave much to be desired. Inhabitants' hardships result from a number of factors related to town planning, public services, architecture and local politics. The following detailed account of undesirable features of Old City residence had been accumulated through years of investigation and close contact with residents. Individual items shall be analysed separately in relation to general features, causes, inconveniences or hazards and possible means of treatment, based on comparisons with modern living conditions and construction.

Architecture and Town Planning

Access: General and Local

General and local access refers to major roads over four metres wide and to smaller narrow alleys respectively. In general, Old City roads with the exception of Via Dolorosa and Alwad road are not fit to accommodate modern means of transport. The vast majority are totally inaccessible to motor vehicles. Cars are not permitted beyond the car park at St. Stephens Gate except for a limited number of permit holders or for emergencies.

Local access is unfit and unsafe. Sharp turns, 1:1 slopes and one- metre wide passages are not uncommon, making even pedestrian traffic demand great care and attention. Residents and frequent users complain of the relatively long distances one has to walk inside the walls, especially inconvenient for the sick and the elderly. Transportation of heavy and large items present similar difficulties. Much inconvenience had been avoided in recent years through the use of small tractors with a one cubic metre capacity; use is however restricted to the transportation of building material and light-weight items. Other used means of transportation include timber carts, mules and donkeys.

Access is affected by a number of factors, both uncontrallable natural conditions and the more controllable human factors.

Topography The City's natural topography poses a major obstacle to general access and transportation. Sudden abrupt changes in altitude are very common, especially in the densely-populated sectors. Flat uniform ground is uncommon in the built-up areas, which explains the disorganised layout of buildings. This problem is best exemplified by the numerous flights of stairs that form the majority of inner roads and alleys. We should remember that the local topography as we see it today is the result of many natural and human changes throughout the years.

Roads and Pavements The Old City had always been known for its "narrow, dirty and poorly paved streets," as described by a Roman ruler on his first visit to the City almost 2,000 years ago. Even today, with advanced modern technology and despite efforts by successive local authorities to improve it, the City's network of roads is still lacking in many respects. Patches of settled stone tiles lacking drainage channels, both dangerous and annoying to pedestrian traffic, are very common. Following periods of heavy rainfall, these accumulate water and dirt, making many roads impassable.

Remedial work Providing an complete solution for pavement settlement is costly and in some areas virtually impossible. It would be ideal if a subgrade base with sufficient bearing strength were used for main road tiles in order to minimise or prevent ground settlement. This form of treatment is far more costly than the single sand layer normally used. At many locations it is not possible to use this procedure due to unfavourable sub-ground conditions, where empty space or underground structures are present. Reaching lower levels can seriously affect the stability of adjacent buildings.

Those involved in Old City affairs confess to the impossibility of eliminating inconveniences related to access and topography. Barring razing and rebuilding the city from scratch, access shall remain restricted for both pedestrian and vehicle traffic.

Shortage of unbuilt space

All of the City's Moslem sector neighbourhoods consist of overcrowded, densely-packed residential buildings. Unbuilt open areas, apart from roads and alleys, are almost non-existent. Except for a small proportion of detached and semi-detached structures in the newer north-eastern sector of the City, all residential and other structures are joined together, from more than two sides in many cases. At road intersections, continuity is maintained through simply supported slabs, spanning across street widths. Public facilities, parks and playgrounds are not found inside the Old City's Moslem sector simply because of the lack of space.

Again, this undesirable feature of Old City residence is not likely to be solved under present circumstances. A solution could only be achieved through large scale environmental changes.

Interior home design

As pointed out earlier, the vast majority of Moslem Quarter dwellings are of Mamluk or Ottoman age. Both societies were famous for their contributions to Moslem architecture and construction techniques. The Madrassa religious school, Khanquah, Zawiya, Ribat and other types of compounds formed the bulk of new construction at the time. A sizeable proportion of present residential buildings were originally designed to serve other purposes.

In general, all such public-use structures had a central courtyard, open or arcaded, with a number of surrounding cells or living chambers. As such institutions became less popular and ultimately fell out of use, new occupants transformed them into regular residential quarters without the appropriate alterations. Consequences of their actions are still felt by inhabitants of the Old City. Even the best equipped Mamluk or Ottoman residential buildings could not be expected to satisfy the requirements of today. With reference to the typical Moslem Quarter home as it exists today, one can list the shortcomings in design. This emphasises the transformation in the purpose of use of any single structure and the redistribution of residential compounds. For instance, it is common for a typical Madrassa compound to accommodate a number of unrelated families, as opposed to, in the past, one family or group of connected individuals.

Area per person ratio

Average living space per person outside the Old City is at least twice that inside the Walls. A typical Moslem Quarter family enjoys the use of no more than two 4 x 4 metre chambers which are expected to accommodate sleeping quarters as well as kitchen and sanitary facilities. This particularly unpleasant feature of Old City residence accounts for a large number of complaints by residents. Their grievances stress the resulting strain on inter-family relations and behaviour, particularly in many-membered families.

It is common for a single family, with more than one married couple, to share a single small room. Apart from the obvious threat to public health, overcrowding has serious social consequences.

Having said this, it would be unfair to blame deficiencies in construction for moral problems. Solving or at least reducing the extent of overcrowding is dependent on the level of public awareness of its dangers. Home owners are advised repeatedly and consistently to look for other favourable alternatives at all costs. However, the problem cannot be expected to vanish by merely acknowledging its existence. Ideal remedial steps could only be executed in a collective framework and not individually. In reality, only greater prosperity in Palestine in general and Jerusalem in particular would be likely to bring about the sought-after changes.

Interior access and mobility

Internal partitioning and living space distribution presents another major to residents. Old City homes typically consist of an open courtyard with surrounding unconnected chambers. Particularly in winter, occupants' mobility is largely influenced by climatic conditions. Movement between service quarters and living chambers are very restricted in cold and rainy weather.

Further inconvenience comes from the extremely small door openings common in Old City dwellings. In addition, adjacent rooms are very often joined by steps to overcome the differences in floor level. In multi-storey structures, steep staircases and deformed eroded steps cause much inconvenience to users.

Ventilation

Conservatism and rejection of the more "open" Western lifestyle is typified in ancient Moslem architecture. The use of exposed openings was minimized to ensure the maximum privacy to occupants. Especially in street level homes, windows are too small and too high for adequate air circulation and sunshine. Not only is the resulting stuffy internal atmosphere unhealthy, but it encourages humidity and deterioration of building material. Above street-level dwellings are still prized in comparison with the basement homes generally occupied by the poorer sector of the population. Windowless rooms, buried at a few feet below street level, are widespread in Moslem Quarter neighbourhoods. Such conditions are very serious, causing illness and even death.

Lack of privacy

In total contrast to the initial intended purposes of Moslem architecture, the redistribution or division of residential buildings among more than one family has resulted in the lack of privacy increasingly complained of today. The system of open courtyard with surrounding chambers adds to the problem, especially in structures of two or more storeys. Extreme situations where one family's only passage to their living quarters crosses the property of another are not uncommon. However, many residents have no complaints in this respect, making clear their preference for the close neighbourly relations that exist in such circumstances.

Distribution of individual dwellings within the same residential compound is best exemplified in the Madrassa Alloulouiyya at the intersection of Aqabat Alkhalidiyya and Alkirami road. The Madrassa structure is composed of an unsymmetrical scattered arrangement of individual chambers on two levels. At least six families live permanently in the premises. All dwellings are inter-connected through common roofs, walls or windows in addition to main entrance gates. No-one commands even a minimal level of privacy, especially because no exact borders are traceable for the individual dwellings.

Interior finishing

Until very recently, the majority of Moslem Quarter homes maintained the ancient often deteriorated floor tiles, a source of much discomfort and inconvenience. Residents regularly complain of water seepage through overlying roof slabs and water or dirt accumulation between non-uniform tiles. Floor surface finish is only a mild example of the low quality of building material in Old City dwellings in contrast with the high standards set by earlier Moslem architecture. Inconsistent maintenance has left the majority of Old City structures in very poor shape. In general, the average Old City home suffers severe deficiencies in all items of interior finishing, plastering, floor surfaces, electrical and sanitary installations, doors, windows and wall paint.

Plastering Severe defects in plaster layers present a constant source of annoyance to occupants and frequent users. In the vast majority of buildings, the existing plaster layer is almost totally useless and often harmful. The weathered, peeling mortar and cement mixture is ineffective in providing the required additional strength and inner layer protection. Stained patches and non-uniform rough surfaces contrast with the intended smooth clean finish. Residents regularly complain of falling chunks of plaster that expose the inner load-bearing components and cause damage to furniture and home appliances. In some homes, interior walls are not plastered at all, revealing the rough rubble surface of the inner wall sections.

Floor surfacing During the last few years, a large number of Old City residents have replaced their old stone floor tiles with modern mosaic tiles. Others, unable to afford the higher cost of such tiles, resort to concrete slabs with a smooth surface finish. Both forms of alternative floor surfacing are generally of poor quality when compared to homes outside the walls, even when first applied. Settlement, cracking and corner defects are very common in the new floors. In view of the irregularly shaped walls of Old City structures, it is almost impossible to use panel lining on the inside of walls as in new construction. Over one third of all Moslem Quarter dwellings are still fitted with old deteriorated stone tiles.

Doors and windows A sizeable proportion of Old City homes are equipped with deteriorated timber main doors. More fortunate homeowners are proud to have reinforced steel sheets as an alternative. Very few homes could claim to have fit and fully operational gates. Interior door openings are in many cases fitted with thick cloth sheets for cover. Windows are similarly non-existent in many homes, except for the wall openings. In others, only deteriorated timber window-frames and broken glass panes are evident. Efforts have recently gone into replacing such unfit installations in Arab homes. Although much has been done, especially in the wake of residents' growing concern for their own safety, there still remain severe deficiences in door and window fittings in many homes in the Old City.

Electrical and sanitary installations The average Old City home is equipped with at most a single toilet, often shared with neighbouring residents. The toilet generally consists of a flat ceramic or mosaic platform usually with a small rusty tap for a flushing. This is typically housed in a one square metre chamber with little or no ventilation. Kitchens are commonly fitted with small stainless steel or ceramic basins with exterior exposed piping. Many inhabitants never enjoy use of a bathtub or shower and bathe with buckets or makeshift manual showers. Kitchen basins are in most cases the only other source of clean water. Washbasins are fitted in a few homes, typically in the open.

Electrical fittings are generally limited to a single socket and lighting switch per room. Light fixtures consist of a single hanging bulb or fluorescent light. Safety switches are rarely installed in accordance with the local electricity board's regulations.

Wall paint In the majority of Moslem Quarter dwellings, especially in the poorer neighbourhoods, residents rarely bother with wall paint for interior decoration. This is hardly surprising when one recalls the poor quality of plastering. Home owners thus prefer to save themselves unnecessary effort and cost. In better-kept dwellings, wall paint is usually replaced on a yearly basis during the summer months. Peeling and stains start to appear with the cold rainy weather.

General style and interior partitioning In general style, Old City construction is not ideal for the use of modern furniture and appliances. Residents complain that domed roofs do not allow the easy installation of television antennas and solar heating installations. Interior vaulted slabs with large corner columns limit and sometimes prevent the use of wall and corner units. Out-of-place steps, recessed wall-cupboards, unnecessary elevated platforms and limited room dimensions are amongst other unpleasant features of interior home design.

Maintenance

The ageing buildings of the Old City are in permanent need of structural and architectural repair. This is caused by poor natural properties of materials and methods of construction, combined with environmental factors. Maintenance and restoration operations have become a daily concern for residents as well as other parties such as building contractors. Here we give an insight into the heavy burdens, both financial and physical, imposed on residents as a result of those operations.

The greatest burden on homeoduring maintenance work in their dwellings is the need for alternative accommodation for the whole household for the duration of work. As pointed out earlier, the lack of living space per family severely limits their options for coping with such demands. In most cases, complete evacuation of the premises is necessary, especially when the replacement of wall and ceiling plaster is the most frequently required operation.

While some homeowners can stay with relatives or neighbours, others must remain in their homes and cope with the "building site" environment until work is completed (maintenance work in Old City residential buildings is carried out every three to five years on average).

Cost and quality of work

Most Old City residents, particularly the older generation, do not possess sufficient technical knowledge and are often cheated and misled by building contractors and labourers. Non-expert craftsmen who are unfamiliar with Old City construction, which is totally different from modern construction, can misguide owners, who usually end up with low quality results. Application of a new layer of wall plaster without bothering to remove the old is the most common malpractice. This procedure is common among local contractors who are tempted by the sizeable savings in time and cost of waste material disposal. Unknowing householders realises the misfortune shortly after work had been completed and the new layer begins to show signs of peeling.

Residents allocate a sizeable proportion of their income to house maintenance and the financial strain on the local community widens the already existing economic and social gaps with the more prosperous Arab neighbourhoods outside the Old City walls. An additional burden on residents is the need to obtain local authority permits for certain forms of maintenance work. All construction operations must be executed in accordance with specific regulations issued by the Israeli authorities.

Deterioration of building material

Age, exposure, non-uniform loading and other factors play a major role in influencing, usually shortening, the "design life" of building materials and structural components. Erosion or weakening of building material has become a major concern for inhabitants, archaeologists and others involved in maintenance and restoration work in the City.

Design concepts

Modern design concepts are based on experimental and theoretical analysis of tested material strengths in conjunction with new more adventurous building techniques aimed at achieving better quality and less costly construction. Less reliance was placed on the size of a load-bearing member in favour of its "design strength" calculated by theoretical analysis of structural members' interaction and the application of factors of safety to material strengths and expected loading combinations. Ancient building techniques, on the other hand, despite a limited dependence on "scientific" theories, were more conservative and generally concentrated on the need to ensure structural safety before all else. Larger sized members and stronger building material than actually required were often used as a result. The most distinctive feature of Old City construction is the envelope of stonework that completely engulfs the outermost surface of all sides and roofs of buildings. Stone was the basic material of construction, not the structural steel and reinforced concrete used today.

Stonework

Stonework was for many centuries the most popular building material. Sedimentary rocks are abundant and relatively cheap to extract and cut to shape. Hundreds of stone quarries and cutters are currently operating in mountainous regions of the country. In Old City construction, stonework was used in various forms for many purposes, for strength and beauty. Stone's favourable natural properties, namely its high bearing capacity, workability, durability and water seepage resistence, have all contributed to its popularity.

Load-bearing capacity

Old City structural walls generally consist of two stone surfaces held together by a rough rubble core fill. While the innermost surface is protected by plaster in most cases, and managed to remain intact over the years, the outermost exposed surface usually exhibits varying levels of erosion. The sheer size of individual blocks (typically up to 30cm thick) continues to hold together the old buildings preventing failure and collapse. Field observations reveal the unhealthy state of stone blocks, with large holes, dents and eroded surfaces. Many incidents are reported of falling chunks and even whole blocks as a result of loss of bonding among other factors. The direct consequences include local loss of bearing strength; reduction in safety standards; and the disagreeable look of eroded profiles.

Decoration: floor and roof tiling

Almost all roofs, whether domed or flat, of Old City buildings were at one time covered with stone tiles of various shapes and sizes. In addition to their strength and elegant look, stone tiles provide weather protection and safe rough surfaces. Today, the erosion and loss of bonding between individual tiles has become the source of much inconvenience and discomfort to residents who complain of leaking roofs and floors and unsafe slippery surfaces. What remains, however, despite excessive erosion, is the traditional elegant sight of the closely and perfectly placed tiles of roof and floor surfaces.

Structural steelwork

Field observations have established that composite steel and concrete construction, a technique widely used during the late Ottoman-early British period exhibits signs of deterioration and fatigue not consistent with its age. In general, I-section steel beams were placed at approximately 1 to 1.5-metre intervals across the shorter length of the covered slab area. The poor quality of construction and the influence of local factors such as humidity and age combine to produce the deterioration in concrete and steel slabs evident today. In addition to safety concerns, residents complain of rust and concrete dropping from ceilings. Humidity and water seepage and the lack of interaction between the un-reinforced, relatively soft mix of concrete and rusty steel beams also contribute to the deterioration of building material. This deterioration poses a threat to the survival of similar forms of construction in the City.

Timber and brickwork

More recent construction in the Old City utilized combined timber and brickwork for small load-bearing walls and timber and red tiles on roofs. Use of the former was limited to single-storeyed, short-span structures, at most 4 x 4 metre slabs, of not greater than 2.5 metres clear height. Even with such small loading, the deterioration in timber had caused the collapse of many structural elements leaving only very few such in the Old City today. Timber/brickwork or clay grout construction is analogous to composite steelwork/concrete, only in the vertical plane. The use of timber beams at vertical one metre intervals aimed to support thin separate brick-clay elements and provide continuity. Another main cause for the loss of bearing strength is the loss of bonding and long-term loosening of clay particles as a result of material deterioration.

A different effect is observed in Spanish-style sloping roofs. Instead of being used to cover a solid slab, Old City buildings with sloping red-tiled roofs directly cover living space, with only thin timber planks used as slabs on occasions. Mainly as a result of inadequate drainage, both timber and tiles have suffered severe deterioration. Unpleasant consequences are observed in rainy weather when streams of water pour directly into living space.

Structural Stability

Stability and safety of Old City structures had been touched upon earlier as a side effect of other undesirable phenomena. Maintaining stability without jeapordising or interfering with the traditional style of architecture presents a major challenge to engineers, architects and archaeologists involved in maintenance and restoration work. Effective and successful execution of these operations requires collective supervision and cooperation all professional parties in order to preserve the City's unique quality and style and its continued future habitation.

Cracking

Cracking generally occurs when local tensile forces exceed the tensile capacity at any position in a load-bearing member. A crack's width, direction, length, position and rate of expansion provide some indication as to its severity and allow predictions to be made of its future behaviour. Regrettably, Old City construction relied completely on the use of building material that possessed little or no tensile strength, mostly natural rock and clay products. As a result, almost no building is free from cracks. The safety of structures and their occupants has become a growing concern.

More and more complaints are received from residents who have either evacuated their homes or are threatening to do so unless immediate action is taken to deal with serious cracking evident in their dwellings. Watching a crack expand by the day, without being able to take counter-measures, precipitates an understandable fear.

Settlement and ground movement

Cracking usually occurs as a result of local ground movement and/or differential settlement between members of the same structure. Diagonal and vertical cracks develop along scattered paths in plastering, kuhla and thick stone cross-sections, depending on the abruptness of ground movements and position of the weakest sections. The absence of reliable structural foundations magnifies the effect of the slightest displacement, enhancing immediate settlement and thus cracking in the supported structure.

In the Old City, archaeological or other excavations have been blamed for all cracking-related damage. The occurence of cracking in a particular structure does have its benefits, however, as structural engineers point out. Almost exact predictions of the expected structural behaviour of a cracked element can be forecast through close monitoring of a crack's development, giving early warning of possible collapse.

Observations have allowed the formulation of a few general rules regarding the relation between ground settlement and collapse in Old City structures. Despite the absence of stable foundations, because most of the ground is rocky, the sheer size of a typical load-bearing wall compensates.

In the absence of additional factors, cracking that results from small scale local excavations such as sewage or water mains has a limited effect and does not seriously threaten the overall stability of a paricular structure. The same applies to excavation operations not directly underneath the structure in question. Diagonal and vertical cracks develop almost immediately after depths in excess of one metre are reached, but cease to expand when settlement of the structure had been completed. Remedial work can be provided through regular maintenance operations.

Consequences of large scale excavations are far more serious. Soon after the 1967 war, the local authority initiated large scale excavations and underground tunneling in many areas of the Old City. At all such locations, widescale structural damage was observed. Were it not for intensive efforts by concerned parties and individuals in exposing the real intentions of the Israeli authorities, the relatively small number of families forced to abandon their dwellings would have been much greater. At a typical excavation site, just inside Bab-alhadid neighbourhood on the western Haram border, archaeological search operations immediately stopped after surrounding buildings, housing eight families, exhibited signs of near collapse indicated by rapidly spreading cracks at critical locations. All inhabitants were temporarily evicted until remedial action was taken to prevent failure. In the event, alternative permanent support was provided at all affected zones. The local authority bore all expenses.

Loading, shrinkage and sheer effects

Other less influencial factors known to induce flexural cracking include shrinkage, building material defects, locally acting sheer forces, and irregular loading combinations. The extent of damage is generally restricted to minor local cracking that can be treated by merely replacing the affected zones, plaster or stone. However, the average Old City resident is unable to differentiate between serious and relatively harmless structural defects, both indicated by cracking.

Other forms of cracking occur as a result of faulty maintenance work. Most common are the horizontal cracks that develop in hollow block construction without self-weight support. In walls over two metres high, failure to provide concrete or steel beams at the two metre level initiates horizontal cracks that can develop further if subjected to excessive loading. Surface wall cracks, especially in plastering, are also very common. Such defects result from shrinkage, improper use of material mixes or from the thickness of the plaster layer applied.

Structural failure

So far, no human loss has resulted from structural collapse incidents in the Old City. However, a number of people have received serious injuries as a result of similar accidents over the years. In Alwad road, a sixty year-old man sustained severe leg injuries when the floor slab of his second storey home collapsed beneath his feet without warning. Other common occurrences include the dropping of single stone blocks as a result of displacement forced by the loss of bonding with adjacent blocks. A number of load-bearing and retaining walls suffering from material deterioration or large stress concentrations have collapsed causing only slight material damage. The majority of such incidents take place either during or immediately after heavy rainfall or local ground movement.

In almost all structural failure incidents, the action is sudden and unexpected, unlike cases where early warning signs are perceived in the form of cracking or slow gradual failure. There are many examples of structural members, load-bearing or self-supporting, which have seemed close to collapse for many years but have long remained intact probably due to their large size and the effective interlocking forces on the other. A typical example was the recently restored exterior wall of the Madrassa Alkarimiyya in Bab-Hutta. The wall profile consisted of large stone blocks 100 x 70 cm in surface area. The alarming appearance of the wall's dipping, tilting upper half, often led regular users of the busy road to the other side, for fear of its imminent collapse. Luckily, the wall held for many years until funds were provided for its restoration. The displaced stone blocks were each carefully removed, labelled and later replaced in their original positions. This operation consumed the better part of two weeks including the removal of over ten cubic metres of earth matter, the cleaning and shaping of each block, and the application of white cement-sand bonding mixture.

Another extraordinary incident was the free-standing ten-meter long, six-meter high double-faced stone wall at the entrance of an elementary school in the Moslem Quarter. Unlike the previous example, this wall had exhibited signs of extensive buckling at mid-height with the outermost stone blocks pushed out over 50 cm away from the vertical wall plane. An unrelated dispute between the owners of the building and the school administration prevented the execution of any repairs in spite of the clear threat to children and teaching staff. It was not until the local authority issued a stern warning to both parties that the wall was completely demolished and a new reinforced concrete replacement erected. The costs were shared by the two parties and neighbours.

Clay soil material of construction

Examples in the preceeding paragraphs indicate the importance of stability-related issues in the daily lives of the City's inhabitants. A common feature is the effect of using clay soil as a building material in stonework construction, as a bonding agent, and in a load-bearing capacity in slab construction. Tests and investigations have allowed a number of observations regarding the long term damage caused by the use of clay boulders in old Moslem constru. It must be stressed, however, that a well planned investigation is urgently needed to reach a better understanding of the structural behaviour of Old City buildings, making use of available research findings with field observation and testing.

Load-bearing and self-supporting walls

Regarding the structural behaviour, durability and bearing capacity of loaded members, it suffices to consider briefly the effect of bonding mixtures on the durability, strength and stability of individual elements, excluding the effect of material deterioration discussed earlier. Observations at many locations prove that the inevitable seepage of water through a member's thickness is the major cause behind the start and progress of structural damage and material deterioration in Old City structures.

Common related features at collapse/failure locations include the following. Over 80% of the total volume of the intermediate layer between the two stone faces of any wall consisted of fine clay, the remaining 20% being a mixture of large gravel particles. No traces were evident of any presence of bonding material such as gypsum or other mortar mixes. All clays were completely saturated with water. In cases of structural buckling, only limited collapse occurred, normally at mid-height, whereas more severe damage was caused by overturning failure. In both cases, however, as in other observed forms of failure, no systematic collapse mode was observed, with only limited areas affected. Failure generally occurred at one face of a particular wall only; the other remaining wholly intact. This feature indicated the non-symmetrical structural behaviour of double-faced wall sections. Failure occurred with similar frequency at exposed as well as non-exposed surfaces as in inner and outermost faces of double-faced walls.

Vaulted and domed slabs

One of the most serious obstacles facing maintenance and restoration workers is the presence of large quantities of clay boulders and small gravel particles in roof and floor slabs of buildings. In order to maintain the original style of buildings, it is essential not to alter the shapes of individual structural components, confining operations to strengthening the weaker sections or reducing loading wherever possible. The reduction in loading could be easily achieved by the removal of all or part of the thick clay layer, whose self-weight often exceeded any other likely combination of dead and live (imposed) loading the member was likely to be subjected to throughout its design life. Restraints do, however, exist on such a procedure, for technical as well as economic considerations. The relatively high cost of waste material disposal is a very important issue. As explained earlier, restricted access inside the Old City has led to inflated transportation costs. Moreover, soils in general exhibit an appreciable increase in volume when transforming from dense to loose states, typically between 30-50% of the original volume in Old City construction.

As for technical considerations, there are several restraints. The removal of the clay-boulder layer in its load-bearing role implies the need for its replacement by alternative material in order to maintain general member stability. The procedure followed at a few locations was replacing the original thick slab by a new flat reinforced concrete member. The disadvantages of similar operations are risky execution, high cost and change of traditional form.

Unsafe construction and maintenance work

Less visible and less serious than cracking are many construction defects in Old City buildings today resulting from faulty construction of one form or another. Typical examples include cantilevered verandas supported by steel beams and roof parapet walls. In addition, many incidents have been recorded where unstable conditions, even collapse, have developed as a result of faulty repairs or maintenance. On most such occasions, damage resulted from a lack of understanding of Old City construction on the part of residents, non-expert labourers and building contractors. Commonly occurring incidents involved the removal of load-bearing members without providing alternative support, and the incorrect execution of routine maintenance operations such as surface treatment of seriously damaged sections.

Sewage disposal

A modern effective sewage disposal network did not exist in the Moslem Sector of the City until a few years ago when the local Israeli authority commenced provision for all neighbourhoods of the City, a plan faced with numerous obstacles. Before detailing, it is worth pointing out a few issues of particular significance.

During routine maintenance operations carried out in the Old City, what the locals refer to as old Turkish canals were found below ground level at many locations. The majority were clay pipes, totally unfit for use, except for a few that had somehow remained partially intact but nevertheless continue to cause structural and architectural damage to buildings, often pouring into nearby sedimentation pits or in some cases into the abandoned basements of the structure.

At the time such systems were first installed, close to 100 years ago, the process was regarded as an advanced achievement. Unfortunately, the mere replacement of those pipes by modern equivalents did not solve sewage problems inside the City, due to the non-inclusion of many of the City's sectors in the old layout, and the unsatisfactory operation of the old system in the serviced areas.

The sewage disposal problem is not restricted to the Old City, but found in many Arab neighbourhoods outside the Walls. Until today, the majority of new residential neighbourhoods are not connected to a public sewage network. The inhabitants rely in general on the use of sedimentation pits normally constructed from reinforced concrete.

Hazards and inconveniences

In modern communities the world over, sewage disposal systems are regarded with the same importance as water and electricity mains. Unfortunately, in this part of the world, the public's awareness of such basic issues is minimal. The following account of hazards and inconveniences provides a realistic insight into the resulting hardships of Old City residents.

Public health and hygiene

A common sight in Moslem Quarter neighbourhoods is a flooded sedimentary pit or manhole covered with flowing sludge and swarms of insects. However, there is a general lack of concern among much of the population and disregard of the dangers. Instead of acting to rid their community of such harmful conditions, they have grown accustomed to them, although low standards of public health have been blamed for the higher rates of deaths and serious disease among Old City children in comparison with other sectors of Arab Jerusalem.

Physical and financial burden

For Old City dwellers, the need for regular pumping out of sedimentation pits is both a financial and physical burden. The most efficient and least-used of pits requires sludge suction on two-monthly basis on average. Some home-owners allow pits to overflow, or empty as much as they can manually into the nearest public space, normally the nearest alley or deserted yard.

Structural and architectural damage

Inspections of operational sewage systems in various neighbourhoods of the Moslem Quarter indicate that the majority do not function satisfactorily in terms of effective transportation of sludge and liquid sewerage. In all inspected systems, it was noticed that all manholes and to some extent pipes were either easily blocked or leaky. All Turkish, British and Jordanian systems required extensive repair or complete replacement. Residents of lower storeys regularly complained of leaking sewage pipes and manholes. Greenish patches in walls and ceilings, peeling floor tiles, dripping ceilings and building material deterioration are the undesirable consequences.

In general, the influence of the larger sedimentation pits was more serious, causing severe structural damage at many locations. Several incidents were reported of floor slabs at ground level which collapsed to reveal underlying pits. One such pit was still operatiowithout the inhabitants realising. At other locations, evidence of structural damage at known pit sites forced residents to undertake costly maintenance in order to avoid disaster.

Restraints on modifications

Having given a brief insight into the inconveniences and hazards of the existing sewage disposal network servicing the Moslem Quarter of the Old City, it should be made clear that any future plans for changing or merely improving on the present situation face major obstacles.

Topography Water and sewage networks are analogous in many ways to roads and alleys, except that pedestrian and vehicle traffic can ascend hills with relative ease whereas water and sewerage must be mechanically transported to higher elevations. As pointed out earlier, terrain and topography limit possible improvements to the existing road network. Similar restrictions apply to the local sewage service. Including all of the City's inhabited areas in one system or network faces enormous technical difficulties and very high costs. The only advantageous feature is the City's favourable geographic position, i.e. on high ground surrounded from almost all sides by lower ground. In theory, it would be possible for sewerage to flow naturally away from any position in the Old City into adjacent valleys.

Non-uniform distribution of residential buildings When the City's existing residential buildings were first built, very few excavations were carried out, as the majority of structures were erected in compatibility with the local natural ground datum levels. As a result of the topography and the lack of unbuilt space inside the City, the general distribution of residential space was far from ideal. The inhabitants of basement and occasionally ground floor homes were left out when new sewage pipelines were installed if at lower levels than the lowest position along the new system. In rare cases, residents of third floor homes are forced to put up with problematic sewage and rainwater disposal by non-cooperative neighbours who refuse the passage of any system through their property. Any future improvement on present conditions requires the installation of a separate system at each location, no matter how costly and impractical that might prove to be. Otherwise, continued reliance on sedimentary pits remains the only alternative.

Technical restraints Pipelaying is a technically complex operation even in ideal circumstances. Specialist teams of workers ensure the effective operation of the newly installed system. Any defects left undetected in the early stages are likely to cause enormous losses. Location of a defect position is a very laborious and technically difficult process.

Excavations Earthworks inside the Old City demand special attention from pipelaying contractors who are forced to deal with the confined space and difficult terrain. The most risky aspect of the process is the hazardous effect of excavations on the stability of adjacent structures. Due to the high density of construction inside the City, choices of possible sewage pipeline paths are very limited, especially in the more crowded sectors. The following notes are based on observations made at a number of locations where the local Jerusalem authority has executed new sewage pipe-laying projects.

Ground settlement and structural damage The extent of the resultant structural damage in buildings adjacent to excavation sites varies between the start of limited cracking in the least affected areas, to total failure. The degree of harm inflicted depends among other factors on the size of both the excavations and the building foundations, the natural ground conditions, and the position of adjacent structures relative to that of excavated areas. We note that failure of soil elements occurs on sloping planes where local angles of friction have been exceeded. Subsequently, overlying structures settle into the ground as a result of the downward vertical displacement of foundations. Extra tensile and other forces then develop, due to the differential settlement across the structure causing cracking or total failure in affected areas.

Access Confined space inside the Old City restricts the smooth execution and leads to higher costs compared to similar operations at other sites. Inflated costs are largely the result of the relatively higher cost of transportation, and the need to keep streets accessible at excavation sites, at least for pedestrian traffic. Very often, the scale of excavations requires the whole road width, forcing contractors to work at odd hours and to provide temporary alternative passages, especially for nearby home-owners. Using heavy plant or machinery is out of the question in almost all parts of the Moslem Quarter. Excavation tools are generally limited to manual shovels, picks and, where possible, low power compressors. As a result, work time is much greater than for identical activities outside the City Walls.

Other factors Other factors that influence the operation of new sewage systems within the City's perimeter include steep slopes, crooked paths, tight corners, and flights of steps. Most limiting are the steep courses of newly-laid pipes which encourage the precipitation of solid sludge. In such cases, where no alternative routes are available, cleaning out operations are carried out frequently. Confined space, as discussed earlier, induces design limitations: manholes shallower than required and smaller diameter pipelines are used as a result.

Also of significance is the fact that the confined space is certain to create limitations on any future plans for the provision of telephone and electricity lines in the many of the City's Moslem Quarter neighbourhoods which still require these.

Dampness

Excess humidity or dampness is the phenomenon most consistently complained about by residents of the Old City, particularly the Moslem Quarter. All Old City buildings of whatever use suffer from it, with the resulting damage to health. As the City's residents and frequent visitors often complain, the local climate, both in summer and winter varies drastically between the inside and outside of buildings, with a difference between outside and inside the Walls. Discoloured patches appear on newly plastered walls and ceilings within hours of completing the work. With the majority of homes painted in light colours, the green and black patches stand out most unpleasantly.

With higher levels of dampness, the outermost layer of paint peels off, followed by the more adhesive plaster layer. If left unrepaired, affected zones exhibit further deterioration and subsequent erosion of material constituents of load bearing members. In many homes, large buckets are positioned to collect clay and rubble from walls and ceilings. In places where stone is the outermost surface, the effect of dampness takes longer to become apparent than on plaster or paint. However, green-black patches eventually develop as in other material. Observation reveals that the predominantly limestone blocks start to lose thin slices from their surface relatively quickly.

At one particular site, a three by three metre chamber, abandoned for many years, exhibited beautifully patterned limestone inner walls that were completely saturated with moisture. Simple manual experiments showed that it was possible to scrape almost one inch off some stones. Using a hammer and nail, it was possible with little effort to dig one inch diametre holes to a depth of almost four inches into the soft stone without any evidence of fracture. Stone surfaces can become like sponges. Physically undetectable indications of dampness in Old City buildings include the distinctive odour of rot and decay.

Hazards

Health

It is common knowledge that prolonged exposure to a damp environment can seriously damage one's health. Many residents, young as well as old, suffer from arthritis and similar diseases as a result of living in Old City homes for long periods. Some individuals have followed the advice of physicians and moved out of the City altogether.

Deterioration of building material

Dampness has a very destructive long term effect on the and durability of material used in construction and, consequently, on the general overall stability of Old City structures. It is widely accepted that even the most durable and most protected members suffer drastic deterioration. However, short term effects of dampness are not damaging to strength and durability of structural components, inflicting only limited architectural damage. Field observations and testing have indicated that despite being treated with an anti-corrosion paint layer, structural steel members exhibit severe deterioration at almost all inspected sites; in particular, beam flanges totally ineffective in load-bearing only a few years after installation. Were it not for the fact that sections used were originally overdesigned and oversized for their expected load, the effect of peeling of the outermost rusty layers would be much more drastic. In timber-brickwork construction, the least common form in the Old City today, the effect is even more drastic. Due to a large number of near-collapse incidents over the last few years, most structures so constructed originally were demolished and wholly rebuilt to avoid imminent failure. A similar consideration applied to timber-Spanish-tiled roof construction, except that on the whole there was less danger of collapse. Other limitations, such as high costs and authority permits, forced occupants of similar structures to accomodate to dripping roofs and rotting timber ceilings.

Stonework construction, being the most popular form in the Old City, deserves more consideration. Also worthy of attention is the effect of dampness on the traditional vaulted and domed slabs of Old City homes. These include rubble and clay components known for their extreme sensitivity to moisture.

Unfortunately, building techniques and material used in the Old City are ideal for damp. In load-bearing stone walls, as explained earlier, collapse occurs either in overturning or buckling modes, mode of failure being determined by vertical and lateral loading combinations. In both cases, saturation of the intermediate clay-rubble layer induced extra stresses as a result of pore water pressure. Failure occurs more frequently at the exterior stone surface since the inner side had more fixity, provided partly by floor and roof slabs and partly by the extra strength and continuity provided by wall plaster.

Many incidents of local collapse, usually of several adjacent stone blocks, were a result of loss of bonding between connected blocks and the mortar mix. More often than not, the action came about through material deterioration and weathering. Changes in volume, shrinkage or expansion within the clay-rubble layer might also cause limited failure.

In floor and roof slabs, a thick layer of soil, especially towards the edges, tops the load-bearing components (a mixture of rubble and large gravel particles). Old Moslem architecture generally resorted to the use of vaulted or domed slabs, in which large rectangular columns at four corners supported arched converging beams that formed the roof slab. In order to overcome the difference in elevation between the centre and edges of slabs, natural soil or rubble were used as fill material. In addition to its excessive self weight, the soil layer can cause severe damage, possibly failure, when saturated with moisture, an inevitability unless regular maintenance work is performed to the roof surface stone tiles or some other form of protectant.

Once water is admitted into the soil/rubble layer, extra stresses are induced within the soil structure. More damage results from water seepage through the load-bearing component of the slab. Due to the lack of ventilation and other factors it becomes wholly saturated with water. Dampness develops very rapidly inside confined areas as the water evaporates, in addition to the loss in strength and load-bearing capacity of the slab.

The long term influence of such conditions usually leads to building material deterioration, changes in volume and the development of internal stresses that seriously affect structural behaviour and durability of members.

Regarding stone, it is in general relatively impermeable to water except along fissure lines. A combination of physical and chemical action assist the speedy deterioration of stone blocks and consequently reduce their water resistant properties. The stone layer can no longer be counted on as a protective barrier in spite of its thickness, typically 30-50 cm compared to 7-10 cm for building stone today.

It is evident to the untrained observer that nearly all exterior stone wall profiles in the Old City today exhibit holes and dents as well as scraped or peeled off surfaces resulting from old age and long exposure to the excessively humid environment. Interior stone surfaces, generally protected by plastering, become softer and more permeable with age, but do not exhibit any change in size as in the exterior stone faces.

Finally, it must be stressed that further laboratory and in-situ tests are required in order to reach better understanding of the physio-chemical behaviour and natural properties of typical Old City materials in relation to moisture, dampness and changes in climatic conditions. Solutions must be found to counteract the unpleasant effect of dampness.

Additional costs

In addition to the financial burden imposed upon the City's residents by regular maintenance work, the treatment of dampness requires its own separate budget. Operations such as the application of asphalt layers to leaky roofs, the construction of substitute hollow block walls, the regular application of impermeable moisture resistant material, the frequent replacement of wall paint and so on, are undertaken by homeowners to help reduce the effect of dampness inside their homes.

In the same way as building material, house furniture, windows and doors are often damaged as a direct consequence of dampness. In particular, electrical appliances are most sensitive to such conditions. Television sets, video tape recorders and washing machines have been known to stop functioning or sustain permanent damage as a result of damp-induced electrical faults. Damage is also reported to furniture and other house appliances from peeling or falling material such as plaster and wall paint.

Social inconvenience

Excessive dampness inside residential quarters is a source of trouble to Old City families. Homeowners confess to its playing a destructive role by reducing the sense of belonging and pride one should feel for one's home. Just as homeowners feel bitter and resentful towards their own homes, they feel shame when receiving visitors. This is considered a cause of lack of social intercourse between the Old City community and the outside world.

Causes and Catalysts

Dampness is not only restricted to the Old City as might be inferred. Its presence is dependent on numerous factors, not exclusive to the Old City environment. Dampness is likely to develop at any location. Reference should be made to analogous situations outside the City's boundaries in considering each factor.

Lack of ventilation and natural light

The interior design and distribution of Old City homes is extremely inconvenient in many respects. The lack of adequate ventilation and natural light in living space are two of the most influential factors that encourage dampness. Restricted air circulation aids the fast saturation of the local atmosphere with water vapour that in turn originates from the internal wall and ceiling surfaces as a result of changes in temperature. In addition, the deficiency in openings and the high density of buildings inside the City severely limit the entry of natural light into living areas, again aiding the development and rapid expansion of dampness inside such dwellings. The lack of sunshine also contributes towards increasing domestic heating and electricity consumption.

Material of construction

Natural properties of building material widely used in Old City construction are extremely disadvantageous in relation to water absorption and permeability. Clay, rubble and other similar material retain water that seethrough the harder outer surfaces of buildings either as a result of material deterioration or other local defects. All such materials, whether separate or mixtures, actively influence the growth of dampness in structural members. Upon close examination of constituent material of structural components, the lack of bonding suffered with age is clearly visible. Water reaching the inner layers thus finds little difficulty in passing through the mixture of large gravel particles, clay and rubble. Clay, which has the lowest permeability, does not adhere as closely as when it was first mixed with larger more solid particles. Rubble quickly becomes saturated with water and does not dry out at the same rate.

Vegetation growth

Vegetation growth and dampness develop as a result of each other. Attempts by homeowners to uproot unwanted vegetation are unsuccessful on most occasions even with the use of chemicals. Vegetation growth within structural members can cause serious damage to building material in addition to increasing dampness. Large stone blocks have suffered sizeable displacement or even fracture by growing plants at many locations in the Old City.

In the same context, the presence of flowerbeds in many Old City homes had been regarded as a major source of moisture and, therefore of dampness within walls, floors and roofs. Residents of the City, because of the lack of space, have used small flowerbeds as garden substitutes. Such formations are normally poorly constructed and lack suitable drainage outlets. Especially in the upper floors of residential buildings, flowerbeds only serve as leaky water tanks causing more trouble than benefit.

Leaky water and sewage lines

Dampness exists in many locations as a result of leaky plumbing connections in Old City buildings. As had been reported earlier, water and sewage networks currently operational in the City are extremely inefficient and unusable in places. The main reason for this lies in the low standard of workmanship on the part of craftsmen, designers or planners. Poor economic conditions also contribute, discouraging residents from carrying out regular repairs or improving existing systems. Extreme cases where leaky sewage or water lines cause severe structural damage and weathering of material are common.

Drainage provision

Insufficient and ineffective drainage outlets in roofs and inner yards of Old City buildings encourage the formation of surface water puddles that ultimately lead to intensified seepage through inner layers of walls and slabs. In spite of the ideally shaped domed roofs, rainwater is very rarely disposed of efficiently mainly due to the presence of local settled tile patches and non-uniform surfaces. Drainage pipes and outlets, where installed, are frequently blocked by solid dirt leaving no alternative for the water but to seep through roof slabs. In some confined areas, it is almost impossible to install any form of drainage outlet without inconveniencing neighbours or nearby pedestrians.

Treatment

For many years, scientists have conducted intensive investigations on dampness, its undesirable effects, hazards and possible treatment methods, without much success. Physio-chemists have conducted tests on samples from Old City buildings to investigate the long term influence of dampness on building material used in the City. Awaiting the findings of research, methods of dealing with the phenomenon are restricted to practical physical solutions rather than chemical treatment aimed at either reducing or counteracting its effects.

Ventilation

Unventilated confined areas with inadequate air circulation create ideal conditions for the growth and expansion of dampness. Efforts directed towards the reversal of such conditions thus assist the slowing down of its expansion. During the last few years, residents of the Old City have taken steps towards enhancing ventilation inside their homes by encouraging local building contractors, while performing regular maintenance operations, to construct additional door or window openings. It must be remembered, however, that such operations involve high risks if not carried out with the utmost care. Chosen positions for such openings are at opposite sides of closed areas whenever possible. In confined areas, inhabitants use electric fans during hot weather and suitable heating appliances in cold weather. In some homes and public areas, ventilation and lighting are only provided through tiny openings in roofs and ceilings. In such situations, occupants are forced to cope with numerous problems such as rainfall, dirt, garbage accumulation and lack of privacy.

Regular maintenance and home improvements

Maintenance work in Old City buildings, if performed with professionalism and skill, produces highly beneficial long term results in regards to reducing dampness levels. Such operations are normally aimed at replacing the affected layers by new more durable substitutes as well as continuously maintaining strong external protection. Usually, residents resort to replacement of internal wall plastering at the first signs of dampness. It must be emphasized that affected layers must be totally removed as a first step, then the exposed inner wall section (usually the stone face) should be left for a breathing period of a few days. A new plaster layer is then applied in three stages; rough, coarse, and finally a smooth outer surface. No less important is the need for the regular replacement of kuhla, the bonding cement and mortar mixture that fills the gaps between separate stone blocks. With strong, impermeable kuhla and relatively undamaged stone, water seepage becomes very unlikely and, consequently, dampness does not develop through the exterior surfaces.

Similarly, the replacement of roof surfaces when required contributes towards increasing the protection of the covered areas against dampness and other unwanted external effects.

Other operations that residents resort to in extreme situations include the erection of substitute hollow cement block walls of brick at 5-10 cm from the original wall plane. The process does not rid the walls of dampness as such, but aims to prolong the period before it reaches the new wall. Local building contractors specialized in Old City maintenance and repair work were always encouraged to remove the largest possible amount of rubble-clay from walls and roofs during routine operations. Despite being very costly and laborious, the action helped tremendously in reducing both dampness levels and unnecessary loading.

Homeowners were also encouraged to remove all flower beds and small planted terraces in top floors as well as using suitable chemicals continuously to get rid of unwanted vegetation growth in walls and on roofs of buildings. Favourable results were also achieved in places where residents dismantled damaged sewage and water lines or had them fixed permanently.

Improved drainage

It is of great concern that the City's residents do not pay sufficient attention to drainage provision in their homes except after it is too late. This is largely due to the ignorance of homeowners and, at times, the dishonesty of building contractors. Together with regular and effective maintenance work to walls and roofs, the provision of effective drainage routes contributes to limiting and eliminating dampness. Homeowners have been encouraged to make sure that sufficient drainage outlets were installed at likely zones for accumulation of rainwater. Such action is relatively inexpensive but depends to a large extent on the willingness of the inhabitants to ensure its efficient operation.

Such brief advice for dealing with excessive dampness provides no more than practical, easy actions that contribute to reducing effects rather than solving the problem. In order to preserve the City's outstanding architecture, and simultaneously improve on the current unbearable conditions, it is essential to encourage research as applicable to the local environment. Hopefully, solutions will ultimately be reached through some form of chemical treatment, or possibly through the introduction of modified construction techniques.

Public services and facilities

Public services and facilities inside the Old City's Moslem Quarter are scandalously lacking. Unfortunately, the City's inhabitants themselves are wholly ignorant of their misfortune. Residents have become accustomed to the miserable conditions and adjust their own needs accordingly. Social and cultural prosperity in the Old City has been hampered by the shortage in basic public services. Improvements could be made if dedicated efforts were directed towards the collective realisation of those goals. In other fields, several factors, most notably the limited unbuilt space inside the City, could prove to be unsolveable obstacles in the way of future improvements.

Public facilities

The Moslem Quarter of the City is so heavily built-up that almost no free space could be transformed into public areas such as family parks, children's playgrounds or sports facilities. It is not surprising, therefore, that its streets and alleys have turned into playgrounds where the City's young and older people get together in their leisure time. This has serious cultural and educational drawbacks. The harsh, unpleasant environment has left its negative stamp firmly on one generation after the other, indirectly assisting in further widening of the existing social gap between the two Arab communities on either side of the City Walls.

Household services

Until only a few years ago, basic public services did not exist in the Old City. Today, after intensified efforts towards improvements in that direction, the standard and extent of provision of such services is still incomparable with other sectors of Jerusalem outside the Walls. Garbage disposal, water and sewage systems, electricity and telephone lines have until recently been very rare luxuries. Improvements have been very slow, and in places ineffective, due to economic and political factors. The public garbage disposal service provides one of the most typical examples where the lack of awareness on the residents part, and the insincerity of the local authority on the other, have combined to prevent its efficient operation. While the latter were guilty of being more concerned with those sectors of the Moslem Quarter frequented by tourists, largely neglecting the densely populated areas, the former are blamed for their lack of cooperation with garbage collectors and municipality staff. In other words, the non-commitment of either party towards the successful, continued operation of the service has contributed to the common sight of heaps of filthy garbage on street corners throughout the City. It should be stressed that only the close cooperation between the inhabitants on one side and the local authority on the other is likely to produce the desired results of improving the standard of public services.

Transportation

Reference was made above to the major problem that faces car-owning residents of the Old City in relation to parking and safety of their property. With only one car park at the Eastern entrance of the City, at St. Stephens Gate, car owners have no alternative but to leave their vehicles and walk the remaining distance. Motorists who break the law which prohibits entry beyond the car park worry not only about traffic tickets or the towing away of their vehicle, but also for its safety.

Socio-political drawbacks of Old City residence

In the next few pages, the reader must bear in mind the events in and around Jerusalem over the last hundred years or so. The socio-political climate prevailing in the City today is a direct result of the latest power struggle in the region during the second half of the century. Palestinian and other authors have been extremely generous in their writings about the political and social oppression the local Arab residents have been subjected to over the years of occupation and strict military rule. All information and analysis presented below is based on field observations and close contact with residents, whose complaints regarding structural and architectural deficiencies in their dwellings could not be separated from their social, economic and political hardships.

For convenience, the following account of social and political drawbacks of Old City life is divided into two categories; firstly the Israeli role and, secondly, the social and inter-community relations.

Israeli policy

In general terms, the local Israeli government's policy towards the Old City and its non-Jewish residents could be described as having one purpose, that being to serve the goals of Zionism. Palestinians see that movement as the major force behind Israeli attempts to judaise all of the land of Palestine. Israeli policy towards the Old City of Jerusalem had not been any different from that employed in the remainder of occupied Arab territory.

Al-Haram Al-Sharif, the holiest Moslem shrine in Palestine, together with the Old City, has been a target for extremist Jewish groups ever since the Israeli army forcibly took over the City in June 1967. Unfortunately, official government policy does not discourage the activities of such factions; on the contrary, it excels in providing cover for their unlawful practices. Due to its highly priviledged status in both the Moslem and Arab worlds, Zionist policymakers decided against the outright eviction of the City's non-Jewish population for fear of creating unwanted bad publicity, but adopted indirect methods for the gradual realisation of Zionist goals.

Court action was one of the cleanest, and most direct, tactics employed by official government bodies to evict Arab residents from their Old City homes. Such actions seem fair and just to the observer since the other party, the inhabitants, appear to be given the chance to put forward their defense in a court of law. Unfortunately, the unlucky homeowner who stood to lose his or her property never had a real chance to win the battle, because of so-called "security" considerations for example.

When no other excuse could be presented in court for the government's intention to take over a certain property, eviction or confiscation orders were immediately issued, on more often than not, security grounds. Israeli officials used emergency rules that were in effect during the British Mandate. In some cases, homeowners were offered trivial compensation, which most refused on patriotic grounds. Many examples can be found of such practices, especially in the older sectors of the Moslem Quarter of the City such as Alwad and Bab Alsilsieh roads.

Less direct practices that both the legal authority and other independent Zionist bodies frequently resorted to included the harassement of non-Jewish homeowners, in order to force them to abandon their property. On the part of the authority, among their best known practices were the imposition of heavy fines on homeowners as punishment for minor irregularities. Just as common were warnings regularly issued to residents demanding unnecessary and costly repairs within a limited period. Failure to meet those requirements often resulted in immediate eviction by the authority.

Zionist bodies and individuals who managed to gain possession of some property in the Moslem Quarter of the City in the last two decades harassed non-Jewish neighbours in a less civilised way. Many incidents were reported of Jewish settlers physically assaulting Arab residents, throwing dirt and dangerous objects into their homes, blocking entrances to their dwellings, disconnecting water and electricity supplies and blocking sewage lines.

On one occasion, and in an attempt to counteract repeated attacks by the Israeli police and a neighbouring Jewish settler, the residents of a small alley (Aquabat Albustami) in the Harat Alsaadiya neighbourhood of the Moslem Quarter of the City, took upon themselves to install an iron gate at the entrance to the alley after being refused a legal permit by the local authority. Only hours after the completion of work, the settler, armed with his machine gun, and escorted by armed police and municipality officials, demolished the newly erected gate without warning. Protests by the residents and Islamic Waqf Officials were mwith pointed guns and threats of physical violence and arrest. It was probably the only place in the world where a municipality engineer used a gun to enforce his technical opinion. In that particular incident, at a time when Arab/Israeli tensions were at a high in the City, the Israeli civil servants took matters into their own hands knowing very well that their actions would go unpunished.

In June 1967, Jewish presence in the Old City was almost non-existent. That soon changed in the aftermath of the Six-Day War when the Israeli authorities immediately issued eviction orders to the Arab inhabitants of the Jewish Quarter and other nearby neighbourhoods. Once that was completed, a large scale reconstruction and restoration project was initiated in the area, to make room for the new Jewish residents invited to replace the Arab population. Subsequently, independent Jewish and Zionist organisations began a systematic process of purchasing primarily Moslem-owned property in various sectors of the Old City. The majority of newly acquired property were transformed into what are labelled as Religious Jewish Teaching Instititutions. It has to be said that many of those acquisitions were Jewish owned in an earlier period. In general, such property would have been legally leased to Arab inhabitants, who made rent payments through a Jordanian government department which acted as a caretaker or guardian of absentees' possessions in the country. Despite the local law being against the forced eviction of long-term tenants, residents were completely denied that right. They were however offered trivial financial compensation.

Today, in order to increase the rate and size of Jewish occupancy in the Old City, Zionist organisations resort to more devious means to extract questionable purchase contracts from Arab residents. On many occasions, property was "purchased" from tenants rather than from the unknowing rightful owners who were forced into costly and lengthy law suits in order to reclaim their lost possession. More often than not, they ended up losers despite their very clear right. However, as the saying goes in Arabic, "If the judge is your enemy, who can you protest to". The Arab population of the City in particular, and the country in general, looked with great concern at such practices which they saw as unfair temptation or blackmail of the ignorant. Other popular tactics included forgery and the acquisition of signatures on sales contracts from Arab landlords while the latter were under the influence of drugs or alcohol.

Social strains

Like any other, the local Arab community has its fair share of internal strife, although it is unique in its extraordinary circumstances. The lack of trust and faith in each other's intentions contribute to maintaining the relative stalemate in regards to any form of improvement by either party, Arab or Israeli. Inter-community relations within the Arab population of the City are not ideal. A feeling of social inferiority in comparison with fellow townspeople living outside the Old City Walls precipitated jealousy and hatred amongst friends and family. To those living in the new East Jerusalem suburbs, Arab neighbourhoods of the Old City are pictured as dirty and unsafe. It should be admitted that both parties are as much to blame for this situation. However, without the presence of a body capable of directing the population towards improved public awareness and maturity, the unhealthy conditions currently dominating people's lives continue to prevail.

Conclusion

At this stage, a brief comment regarding the undesirable features of Old City residence is due. The preceeding detailed account is intended to clarify the true living conditions of the Arab population. Its most urgent purpose is to bring to the attention of the outside world the daily hardships, hoping it may provoke the urgently needed support. It is hoped that more effective action can be taken by individuals and organisations throughout the world in that direction. This report is also intended to serve an equally important purpose on the local level. Firstly, on the inhabitants' side, it aims to convey assurances that others are aware of their suffering, and may be willing to supply support. Secondly, it is hoped that the remainder of the Arab population also develop greater interest in the affairs of their less fortunate, enduring compatriots.